Truly, you read my verdict with more fear than I listen to it." - Giordano Bruno to his inquisitors in 1600.

(Inquisitio haereticae pravitatis), or the holy Inquisition, or the holy tribunal (sanctum officium) - an institution of the Roman Catholic Church, whose purpose was the search, trial and punishment of heretics. The term Inquisition has existed for a long time, but until the 13th century. did not have a later special meaning, and the church had not yet used it to designate that branch of its activity that was aimed at persecuting heretics.

The emergence of the Inquisition.
In the 12th century. The Catholic Church was faced with the growth of opposition religious movements in Western Europe, most notably Albigensianism (Catharism). To combat them, the papacy entrusted the bishops with the duty of identifying and judging “heretics”, and then handing them over to the secular authorities for punishment (“episcopal inquisition”); this order was recorded in the decrees of the Second (1139) and Third (1212) Lateran Councils, the bulls of Lucius III (1184) and Innocent III (1199). These regulations were first applied during the Albigensian Wars (1209-1229). In 1220 they were recognized by the German Emperor Frederick II, and in 1226 by the French King Louis VIII. From 1226-1227, burning at the stake became the ultimate punishment for “crimes against faith” in Germany and Italy.

However, the “bishop's inquisition” turned out to be ineffective: the bishops were dependent on secular power, and the territory subordinate to them was small, which allowed the “heretic” to easily take refuge in a neighboring diocese. Therefore, in 1231 Gregory IX, referring cases of heresy to the sphere of canon law, created a permanent body of church justice - the Inquisition - to investigate them. Initially directed against the Cathars and Waldenses, it soon turned against other “heretical” sects - the Beguins, the Fraticelli, the Spirituals, and then against the “sorcerers”, “witches” and blasphemers.

In 1231 the Inquisition was introduced in Aragon, in 1233 - in France, in 1235 - in Central, in 1237 - in Northern and Southern Italy.

Inquisitorial system.

Inquisitors were recruited from members of monastic orders, primarily Dominicans, and reported directly to the pope. At the beginning of the 14th century. Clement V set the age limit for them at forty years. Initially, each tribunal was headed by two judges with equal rights, and from the beginning of the 14th century. - only one judge. From the 14th century They had legal consultants (qualifiers) with them, who determined the “hereticalness” of the statements of the accused. In addition to them, the number of tribunal employees included a notary who certified the testimony, witnesses present during interrogations, a prosecutor, a doctor who monitored the health of the accused during torture, and an executioner. The inquisitors received an annual salary or part of the property confiscated from the “heretics” (in Italy one third). In their activities, they were guided by both papal decrees and special manuals: in the early period, the Practice of the Inquisition by Bernard Guy (1324) was most popular, in the late Middle Ages - the Hammer of the Witches by J. Sprenger and G. Institoris (1487).

There were two types of inquisition procedures - general and individual investigation: in the first case, the entire population of a given area was questioned, in the second, a challenge was made to a specific person through the priest. If the person summoned did not appear, he was excommunicated. The one who appeared swore an oath to sincerely tell everything he knew about the “heresy.” The proceedings themselves were kept in deep secrecy. Torture, authorized by Innocent IV (1252), was widely used. Their cruelty sometimes caused condemnation even from secular authorities, for example, from Philip IV the Fair (1297). The accused was not given the names of the witnesses; they could even be those excommunicated from the church, thieves, murderers and oathbreakers, whose testimony was never accepted in secular courts. He was deprived of the opportunity to have a lawyer. The only chance for the condemned man was an appeal to the Holy See, although formally prohibited by Bull 1231. A person who had once been convicted by the Inquisition could be brought to trial again at any time. Even death did not stop the investigation procedure: if a person who had already died was found guilty, his ashes were removed from the grave and burned.

The system of punishment was established by Bull 1213, the decrees of the Third Lateran Council and Bull 1231. Those convicted by the Inquisition were handed over to civil authorities and subjected to secular punishments. A “heretic” who “repented” already during the trial was entitled to life imprisonment, which the inquisitorial tribunal had the right to reduce; This type of punishment was an innovation for the penitentiary system of the medieval West. The prisoners were kept in cramped cells with a hole in the ceiling, fed only bread and water, and were sometimes shackled and chained. In the late Middle Ages, imprisonment was sometimes replaced by hard labor in galleys or workhouses. A persistent “heretic” or one who had again “fallen into heresy” was sentenced to be burned at the stake. Conviction often entailed confiscation of property in favor of secular authorities, who reimbursed the costs of the inquisitorial tribunal; hence the special interest of the Inquisition in wealthy people.

For those who confessed to the inquisitorial tribunal during the “period of mercy” (15-30 days, counting from the moment the judges arrived in a particular area), allotted for collecting information (denunciations, self-incriminations, etc.) about crimes against faith, church punishments were applied. These included an interdict (a ban on worship in a given area), excommunication and various types of penance - strict fasting, long prayers, scourging during mass and religious processions, pilgrimage, donations to charitable causes; those who managed to repent wore a special “repentance” shirt (sanbenito).

Inquisition since the 13th century. until our time.

The 13th century turned out to be the period of the apogee of the Inquisition. The epicenter of its activity in France was the Languedoc, where the Cathars and Waldenses were persecuted with extraordinary cruelty; in 1244, after the capture of the last Albigensian stronghold of Montsegur, 200 people were sent to the stake. In Central and Northern France in the 1230s, Robert Lebougre acted on a special scale; in 1235 in Mont-Saint-Aim he arranged the burning of 183 people. (in 1239 he was sentenced to life imprisonment by the pope). In 1245, the Vatican granted the inquisitors the right of “mutual forgiveness of sins” and freed them from the obligation to obey the leadership of their orders.

The Inquisition often encountered resistance from the local population: in 1233 the first inquisitor of Germany, Conrad of Marburg, was killed (this led to the almost complete cessation of the activities of the tribunals in the German lands), in 1242 - members of the tribunal in Toulouse, in 1252 - the inquisitor of Northern Italy, Pierre of Verona; in 1240 the inhabitants of Carcassonne and Narbonne rebelled against the inquisitors.

In the mid-13th century, fearing the growing power of the Inquisition, which had become the domain of the Dominicans, the papacy tried to place its activities under stricter control. In 1248, Innocent IV subordinated the inquisitors to the Bishop of Ajan, and in 1254 transferred the tribunals in Central Italy and Savoy to the Franciscans, leaving only Liguria and Lombardy for the Dominicans. But under Alexander IV (1254-1261), the Dominicans took revenge; in the second half of the 13th century. they actually stopped taking into account the papal legates and turned the Inquisition into an independent organization. The post of inquisitor general, through whom the popes supervised its activities, remained vacant for many years.

Numerous complaints about the arbitrariness of the tribunals forced Clement V to reform the Inquisition. On his initiative, the Council of Vienne in 1312 obliged the inquisitors to coordinate judicial procedures (especially the use of torture) and sentences with local bishops. In 1321 John XXII further limited their powers. The Inquisition gradually fell into decline: judges were periodically recalled, their sentences were often canceled. In 1458, the residents of Lyon even arrested the chairman of the tribunal. In a number of countries (Venice, France, Poland) the Inquisition came under state control. Philip IV the Fair in 1307-1314 used it as a tool to defeat the rich and influential Templar order; with its help, the German Emperor Sigismund dealt with Jan Hus in 1415, and the British in 1431 with Joan of Arc. The functions of the Inquisition were transferred to the hands of secular courts, both ordinary and extraordinary: in France, for example, in the second half of the 16th century. “heresy” was considered both by parliaments (courts) and by specially created “chambers of fire” (chambres ardentes).

At the end of the 15th century. The Inquisition experienced its rebirth. In 1478, under Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, it was established in Spain and for three and a half centuries it was an instrument of royal absolutism. The Spanish Inquisition, created by T. Torquemada, became famous for its particular cruelty; Its main targets were Jews (Maranos) and Muslims (Moriscos) who had recently converted to Christianity, many of whom secretly continued to practice their former religion. According to official data, in 1481-1808 in Spain, almost 32 thousand people died at auto-da-fé (public execution of “heretics”); 291.5 thousand were subjected to other punishments (life imprisonment, hard labor, confiscation of property, pillory). The introduction of the Inquisition in the Spanish Netherlands was one of the reasons for the Dutch Revolution of 1566-1609. Since 1519, this institute operated in the Spanish colonies of Central and South America.

At the end of the 15th century. the Inquisition acquired special significance in Germany; here, in addition to “heresies,” she actively fought against “witchcraft” (“witch hunts”). However, in the 1520s in the German principalities, where the Reformation was victorious, this institution was ended forever. In 1536, the Inquisition was established in Portugal, where the persecution of “new Christians” (Jews who converted to Catholicism) began. In 1561 the Portuguese crown introduced it into its Indian possessions; there she began to eradicate the local “false teachings” that combined the features of Christianity and Hinduism.

The successes of the Reformation prompted the papacy to transform the inquisitorial system towards greater centralization. In 1542, Paul III established a permanent Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Ecumenical Inquisition (Holy Office) to oversee the activities of the local tribunals, although in reality its jurisdiction extended only to Italy (except Venice). The office was headed by the pope himself and consisted first of five and then of ten cardinal-inquisitors; An advisory council of experts in canon law functioned under it. She also carried out papal censorship, publishing the Index of Forbidden Books from 1559. The most famous victims of the Papal Inquisition were Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei.

Since the Age of Enlightenment, the Inquisition began to lose its position. In Portugal, her rights were significantly curtailed: S. de Pombal, the first minister of King Jose I (1750-1777), in 1771 deprived her of the right of censorship and eliminated the auto-da-fé, and in 1774 banned the use of torture. In 1808, Napoleon I completely abolished the Inquisition in Italy, Spain and Portugal he captured. In 1813, the Cadiz Cortes (parliament) abolished it in the Spanish colonies. However, after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire in 1814, it was restored both in Southern Europe and Latin America. In 1816, Pope Pius VII banned the use of torture. After the revolution of 1820, the institution of the Inquisition finally ceased to exist in Portugal; in 1821, the Latin American countries that freed themselves from Spanish rule also abandoned it. The last person executed by the verdict of the Inquisition Court was the Spanish teacher C. Ripoll (Valencia; 1826). In 1834 the Inquisition was liquidated in Spain. In 1835, Pope Gregory XVI officially abolished all local inquisitorial tribunals, but retained the Holy Office, whose activities from that time were limited to excommunications and the publication of the Index.

By the time of the Second Vatican Council of 1962-1965, the Holy Office remained only an odious relic of the past. In 1966, Pope Paul VI actually abolished it, transforming it into the “Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith” (Latin: Sacra congregatio Romanae et universalis Inquisitionis seu Sancti Officii) with purely censorship functions; The index has been cancelled.

The apostolic constitution of John Paul II Pastor Bonus of June 28, 1988 states: The duty due to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith is to promote and protect the doctrine of faith and morals throughout the Catholic world: for this reason everything that in any way concerns such matters faith is within the limits of her competence.

A significant act was John Paul II's (1978-2005) reassessment of the historical role of the Inquisition. On his initiative, Galileo was rehabilitated in 1992, Copernicus in 1993, and the archives of the Holy Office were opened in 1998. In March 2000, on behalf of the church, John Paul II offered repentance for the “sins of intolerance” and the crimes of the Inquisition.

Water torture

Torture with water was usually resorted to in cases where torture on the rack proved ineffective. The victim was forced to swallow water, which slowly dripped onto a piece of silk or other thin fabric stuffed into her mouth. Under pressure, it gradually sank deeper and deeper into the victim's throat, causing sensations similar to those of a drowning person. In another version, the victim’s face was covered with a thin cloth and water was slowly poured onto it, which, entering the mouth and nostrils, made it difficult or stopped breathing almost to the point of suffocation. In another variation, the victim's nostrils were either plugged with tampons or the nose was pressed with fingers and water was slowly poured into the open mouth. From the incredible efforts to swallow at least a little air, the victim’s blood vessels often burst. In general, the more water was “pumped” into the victim, the more severe the torture became.

Holy hunters

In 1215, by decree of Pope Innocent III, a special church court was established - the Inquisition (from the Latin inquisitio - investigation), and it is with it that the phrase “witch hunt” is associated in the public consciousness. It should be noted: although many “witch” trials were indeed carried out by the Inquisition, most of them were the responsibility of secular courts. In addition, witch hunts were widespread not only in Catholic, but also in Protestant countries, where there was no Inquisition at all. By the way, the Inquisition was initially created to combat heresy, and only gradually witchcraft began to fall under the concept of heresy.

There are varying accounts as to how many people were killed during the witch hunts. According to some sources - about two tens of thousands, according to others - more than one hundred thousand. Modern historians are inclined to the average figure - about 40 thousand. The population of some regions of Europe, for example, the outskirts of Cologne, as a result of the active fight against witchcraft, decreased markedly; the fighters against heresy did not spare children, who could also be accused of serving the devil.

One of the tasks of witch hunters was to search for signs by which it would be easy to identify a sorcerer or sorceress. A reliable test for witchcraft was the water test: a bound suspect was thrown into a lake, pond or river.

Anyone lucky enough not to drown was considered a sorcerer and subject to the death penalty. The water test used in Ancient Babylon was more humane: the Babylonians dropped the charges if “the river cleanses the person and he remains unharmed.”

There was a widespread belief that on the body of everyone involved in witchcraft there was a special mark that was insensitive to pain. This mark was looked for using needle pricks. The description of such “devilish signs”, as well as the fact that it was customary to keep witches in separate prisons and avoid their touch, has led some historians to believe that the persecution and extermination of lepers was actually behind the witch hunts.

In the XV-XVII centuries, Western Europe, represented by the Catholic and Protestant churches, began their bloody hunt, which went down in history as the “witch hunt.” It’s as if both churches have gone crazy, recognizing almost all women as witches: if you go out for a walk at night - you’re a witch, if you collect herbs - you’re a witch, if you heal people - you’re doubly a witch. Even the purest girls and women in soul and body fell under the classification of witches.

For example, in 1629, nineteen-year-old Barbara Gobel was burned at the stake. The executioner's list said about her: "The most holy virgin of Wurzburg." It is unclear what caused this manic desire for “purification”. Of course, Protestants and Catholics did not consider themselves beasts, as a sign of this - all potential witches were subjected to simple tests, which in the end no one was able to pass. The first test is whether the suspect has a pet: a cat, a crow, a snake. Even if neither a snake nor a raven was found in the house, many people had a cat or cat. Of course, it also happened that the “witch” didn’t have either a snake or a raven, or even a cat; then a beetle in a dung heap, a cockroach under the table, or the most common moth will disappear. The second test is the presence of the “witch mark”. This procedure was carried out in the following way: the woman was completely undressed and examined. A large mole, nipples larger than required by the state standards of that time - a witch. If the sign is not found on the body, it means it is inside, this is the “iron logic” that guided the commission; the prisoner was tied to a chair and examined, as they say, “from the inside”: they saw something unusual - a witch. But those who passed this test are also “servants of Satan.” Yes, their body is too ideal for a simple woman: Satan awarded them such a body for his carnal pleasures - the reasoning of the Inquisition. As you can see, a potential witch was one regardless of the results of the test. The witch has been identified, captured - what next? Shackles, chains, prison - this is the near future for those chosen by the church. Let's try to look a little further. Torture - there are two options: denial and death from mutilation, or agreement in everything and death at the stake. The choice of “instruments of truth” was great.

For some, pulling out nails and teeth was enough to confess during interrogation; for others, broken legs and arms. But there were desperate women who still wanted to prove their innocence. This is where the sadism, perversion and cruelty of the servants of the Almighty reveals itself. The prisoners were rolled between two logs, starting from the legs, “wrung out” like towels, boiled in resin and oil, imprisoned in the “iron maiden” and the blood was drained to the last drop, lead was poured into the throat. This is only a small fraction of the horrors that happened in the torture chambers, usually located right under the monasteries. The majority, or rather almost all, of the victims of the Inquisition did not live to see the day of their execution. The Inquisition claimed more than two hundred thousand lives.

The Orthodox Church also did not stand aside from this exciting hunt. In ancient Rus', witchcraft processes arose already in the 11th century, soon after the establishment of Christianity. Church authorities were involved in the investigation of these cases. In the oldest legal monument, the “Charter of Prince Vladimir on Church Courts,” witchcraft, sorcery and sorcery are included among the cases that were examined and judged by the Orthodox Church. In a monument of the 12th century. “The Word about Evil Spirits,” compiled by Metropolitan Kirill, also talks about the need to punish witches and sorcerers by church court. The chronicle notes that in 1024, in the Suzdal land, the Magi were captured and<лихие бабы>and put to death by burning.

They were accused of being the culprits of the crop failure that befell the Suzdal land. In 1071, the Magi were executed in Novgorod for publicly condemning the Christian faith. The Rostovites did the same in 1091. In Novgorod, after interrogations and torture, four “wizards” were burned in 1227. As the chronicle tells, the execution took place in the bishop's courtyard at the insistence of Novgorod Archbishop Anthony. The clergy supported the belief among the people that sorcerers and witches were capable of acts hostile to Christianity, and demanded cruel reprisals against them. In the teaching of an unknown author, “How to Live for Christians,” civil authorities were called upon to hunt down sorcerers and sorcerers and hand them over to “ultimate torment,” i.e. death, under fear of church curse. “You cannot spare those who did evil before God,” the author of the teaching convinced, proving that those who saw the execution “will fear God.” 2. Metropolitan John of Kiev also approved mass terror against sorcerers and witches and defended the right of episcopal courts to sentence sorcerers and witches to heavy punishments and death. Metropolitan John believed that cruelty would deter others from performing “magical” acts and would turn people away from sorcerers and sorcerers.

An ardent supporter of the bloody persecution of sorcerers and witches was the famous preacher who lived in the 13th century, the Bishop of Vladimir Serapion, a contemporary of the first trials against witches in the West (the first trial arose in Toulouse in 1275, when Angela Labaret was burned on charges of carnal relations with the devil), “And when you want to cleanse the city of lawless people,” Serapion wrote in his sermon, addressing the prince, “I rejoice in this. Cleanse, following the example of the prophet and king David in Jerusalem, who eradicated all people who commit lawlessness - others murder, some by imprisonment, and others by imprisonment." Bishops sought out sorcerers and witches, they were brought to the episcopal court for investigation, and then handed over to the hands of secular authorities for punishment by death. Following the example of its Catholic comrades, the Orthodox Inquisition developed in the 13th century. and methods for recognizing witches and sorcerers by fire, cold water, by weighing, piercing warts, etc. At first, churchmen considered sorcerers or sorcerers those who did not drown in the water and remained on its surface. But after making sure that most of the accused did not know how to swim and were drowning quickly, they changed their tactics: they began to find those who could not float on the water guilty. To discern the truth, they also widely used, following the example of the Spanish inquisitors, the test of cold water, which was dripped onto the heads of the accused. Supporting faith in the devil and his power, representatives of the Orthodox Church declared any doubt about the reality of the devil to be heretical. They persecuted not only those accused of dealing with evil spirits, but also those who expressed doubt about its existence, about the existence of witches and sorcerers who acted with the help of devilish power. The victims of Orthodox inquisitors were mainly women. According to church beliefs, women most easily entered into relations with the devil. Women were accused of ruining the weather, crops, and being the culprits of crop failure and famine. Kiev Metropolitan Photius developed a system of measures to combat witches in 1411. In his message to the clergy, this inquisitor proposed excommunicating from the church everyone who would resort to the help of witches and sorcerers. 4. In the same year, at the instigation of the clergy, 12 witches, “prophetic wives,” were burned in Pskov; they were accused of witchcraft.

In 1444, boyar Andrei Dmitrovich and his wife were publicly burned in Mozhaisk on charges of witchcraft.

At all times, while the witch hunt was going on, there were people protesting against it. Among them were priests and secular scientists, for example, the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes.

Gradually their voices became louder, and their morals gradually softened. Torture and cruel capital punishment were used less and less, and in the enlightened 18th century, with rare exceptions, witch hunts in Europe gradually faded away. Surprisingly, it is true that executions of people suspected of witchcraft continue to this day. Thus, in May 2008, 11 alleged witches were burned in Kenya, and in January 2009, a campaign against witches began in Gambia. Additional information - Although the scale of the witch hunt is amazing, it should be noted that the risk of becoming a victim was tens of times less than the probability of death from the plague, which claimed millions of human lives. — The cruel tortures used in medieval Europe against those suspected of witchcraft were also used in ordinary criminal practice. — It is generally accepted that the peak of witch hunts occurred in the Middle Ages, but truly large-scale persecution of sorcerers and sorcerers unfolded during the Renaissance.

Moreover, the witch hunt was supported by such a great church reformer and rebel as Martin Luther. It was this fighter against indulgences who wrote the phrase: “Sorcerers and witches are the evil spawn of the devil, they steal milk, bring bad weather, send damage to people, take away the strength in the legs, torture children in the cradle... force people to love and intercourse, and The devil’s machinations are endless.” — Since the word “witch” in Russian is feminine, it is often believed that the victims of witch hunts were mainly women. Indeed, in many countries the number of women among the accused reached 80-85%. But in a number of countries, for example, in Estonia, more than half of those accused of witchcraft were men, and in Iceland, for every 9 executed sorcerers, there was only one executed witch.

In the XII-XIII centuries. In Europe, commodity-money relations further developed, urban growth continued, education and associated free-thinking spread. This process was accompanied by the struggle of the peasantry and burghers against the feudal lords, which took the ideological form of heresies. All this caused the first serious crisis of Catholicism. The Church overcame it through organizational changes and ideological renewal. Mendicant monastic orders were established, and the teaching of Thomas Aquinas on the harmony of faith and reason was adopted as the official doctrine.

To combat heresies, the Catholic Church created a special judicial institution - the Inquisition (from Latin - “search”).

It is worth noting that the term Inquisition has existed for a long time, but until the 13th century. had no subsequent special meaning, and the church had not yet used it to designate that branch of its activity, which had the goal of persecuting heretics.

The activities of the Inquisition began in the last quarter of the 12th century. In 1184, Pope Lucius III ordered all bishops that in places infected with heresy, they personally or through persons authorized by them sought out heretics and, after establishing their guilt, handed them over to the secular authorities to carry out the appropriate punishment. These kinds of episcopal courts were called inquisitorial.

The main task of the Inquisition was to determine whether the accused was guilty of heresy.

From the end of the 15th century, when ideas about the massive presence of witches who entered into an agreement with evil spirits among the ordinary population began to spread in Europe, witch trials began to fall within its competence. At the same time, the overwhelming majority of witch convictions were made by secular courts in Catholic and Protestant countries in the 16th and 17th centuries. While the Inquisition did persecute witches, so did virtually every secular government. By the end of the 16th century, Roman inquisitors began to express serious doubts about most cases of witchcraft accusations. Also, from 1451, Pope Nicholas V transferred cases of Jewish pogroms to the competence of the Inquisition. The Inquisition had to not only punish pogromists, but also act preventively, preventing violence.

Lawyers of the Catholic Church attached great importance to sincere confession. In addition to ordinary interrogations, torture of the suspect was used, as in secular courts of that time. In the event that the suspect did not die during the investigation, but admitted to his crime and repented, then the case materials were transferred to the court. The Inquisition did not allow extrajudicial killings.

Some famous scientists were put on trial by the Inquisition, which will be discussed further.

Share your goodness 😉

Inquisition

The Inquisition was a tribunal of the Catholic Church that carried out detective, judicial and punitive functions; has a centuries-old history. Its emergence is associated with the struggle against heretics - those who preached religious views that did not correspond to the dogmas established by the church. The first known heretic to be burned at the stake for his beliefs in 1124 was Peter of Bruy, who demanded the abolition of the church hierarchy. There has not yet been any “legal” basis for this act. It began to take shape at the end of the 12th - first third of the 13th centuries.

In 1184, Pope Lucius III convened a council in Verona, the decisions of which obliged the clergy to collect information about heretics and search for them. According to the papal bull, the bones of previously deceased heretics, as desecrating Christian cemeteries, were subject to exhumation and burning, and property inherited by someone close to them was subject to confiscation.

This was a kind of prelude to the emergence of the institution of the Inquisition. The generally accepted date of its creation is 1229, when church hierarchs at their council in Toulouse announced the creation of an Inquisition tribunal designed to detect, try and punish heretics. In 1231 and 1233 Three bulls of Pope Gregory IX followed, obliging all Catholics to implement the decision of the Toulouse council.

Church punitive bodies appeared in Italy (with the exception of the Kingdom of Naples), Spain, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, Germany, in the Portuguese colony of Goa, and after the discovery of the New World - in Mexico, Brazil and Peru.

After the invention of printing by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century. the tribunals of the Inquisition actually took over the functions of censors. Year after year the list of prohibited books was replenished and by 1785 it amounted to over 5 thousand titles. Among them are books by French and English enlighteners, the Encyclopedia by Denis Diderot, etc.

The most influential and cruel Inquisition was in Spain. Essentially, ideas about the Inquisition and inquisitors were formed under the influence of information about the persecution and reprisals against heretics associated with the name of Thomas de Torquemada, with his life and activities. These are the darkest pages in the history of the Inquisition. The personality of Torquemada, described by historians, theologians, and psychiatrists, still arouses interest to this day.

Thomas de Torquemada was born in 1420. His childhood and adolescence left no evidence of serious emotional turmoil and mental deviations. During his school years, he served as an example of integrity not only for his classmates, but even for his teachers. Having then become a monk of the Dominican order, he was distinguished by his impeccable attitude towards the traditions of the order and the monastic way of life, and thoroughly performed religious rituals. The order, founded in 1215 by the Spanish monk Domingo de Guzman (Latinized name Dominic) and approved by a papal bull on December 22, 1216, was the main support of the papacy in the fight against heresy.

Torquemada's deep piety did not go unnoticed. Rumor about her reached Queen Isabella, and she more than once invited him to head large parishes. He invariably responded with a polite refusal. However, when Isabella wished to have him as her confessor, Torquemada considered it a great honor. In all likelihood, he managed to infect the queen with his religious fanaticism. His influence on the life of the royal court was significant. In 1483, having received the title of Grand Inquisitor, he practically headed the Spanish Catholic tribunal.

The verdict of the secret court of the Inquisition could be public abdication, a fine, imprisonment and, finally, burning at the stake - the church used it for 7 centuries. The last execution took place in Valencia in 1826. The burning is usually associated with auto-da-fé - the solemn announcement of the verdict of the Inquisition, as well as its execution. This analogy is quite legitimate, since all other forms of punishment were handled more casually by the Inquisition.

In Spain, Torquemada resorted to extreme measures much more often than inquisitors in other countries: over 15 years, 10,200 people were burned on his orders. The 6,800 people sentenced to death in absentia can also be considered victims of Torquemada. In addition, 97,321 people were subjected to various punishments. Primarily baptized Jews were persecuted - Marranos, accused of adhering to Judaism, as well as Muslims who converted to Christianity - Moriscos, suspected of secretly practicing Islam. In 1492, Torquemada persuaded the Spanish kings Isabella and Ferdinand to expel all Jews from the country.

This “genius of evil” died a natural death, although, as the Grand Inquisitor, he was constantly shaking for his life. On his table there was always a rhinoceros horn, with the help of which, according to the belief of that era, it was possible to detect and neutralize poison. When he moved around the country, he was accompanied by 50 horsemen and 200 infantry.

Unfortunately, Torquemada did not take his barbaric methods of fighting dissent with him to his grave.

The 16th century was the century of the birth of modern science. The most inquisitive minds devoted their lives to understanding facts, comprehending the laws of the universe, and questioning centuries-old scholastic dogmas. Man's everyday and moral ideas were renewed.

A critical attitude towards the so-called unshakable truths led to discoveries that radically changed the old worldview. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) stated that the Earth, along with other planets, revolves around the Sun. In the preface to the book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres,” the scientist wrote that for 36 years he did not dare to publish this work. The work was published in 1543, a few days before the death of the author. The great astronomer encroached on one of the main postulates of church teaching, proving that the Earth is not the center of the Universe. The book was banned by the Inquisition until 1828.

If Copernicus escaped persecution only because the publication of the book coincided with his death, then the fate of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was tragic. As a young man he became a monk of the Dominican order. Bruno did not hide his convictions and displeased the holy fathers. Forced to leave the monastery, he led a wandering lifestyle. Persecuted, he fled from his native Italy to Switzerland, then lived in France and England, where he studied science. He outlined his ideas in the essay “On Infinity, the Universe and Worlds” (1584). Bruno argued that space is infinite; it is filled with self-luminous opaque bodies, many of which are inhabited. Each of these provisions contradicted the fundamental principles of the Catholic Church.

While lecturing on cosmology at Oxford University, Bruno engaged in heated discussions with local theologians and scholastics. In the auditoriums of the Sorbonne, the French scholastics experienced the power of his arguments. He lived in Germany for 5 whole years. A number of his works were published there, causing a new explosion of rage of the Italian Inquisition, which was ready to do anything to get the most dangerous, in its opinion, heretic.

At the instigation of the church, the Venetian patrician Mocenigo invited Giordano Bruno as a home teacher of philosophy and... betrayed him to the Inquisition. The scientist was imprisoned in a dungeon. For 8 years, the Catholic tribunal unsuccessfully sought a public renunciation of Giordano Bruno from his scientific works. Finally came the verdict: to punish “as mercifully as possible, without shedding blood.” This hypocritical formulation meant burning at the stake. The fire started burning. After listening to the judges, Giordano Bruno said: “Perhaps you pronounce this sentence with more fear than I listen to it.” On February 16, 1600, in Rome on the Square of Flowers, he stoically accepted death.

The same fate almost befell another Italian scientist - astronomer, physicist, mechanic Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642). The telescope he created in 1609 made it possible to obtain objective evidence of the validity of the conclusions of Copernicus and Bruno. The very first observations of the starry sky showed the complete absurdity of the church’s statements. In the Pleiades constellation alone, Galileo counted at least 40 stars, invisible until then. How naive the works of theologians now looked, explaining the appearance of stars in the evening sky only by the need to shine for people!.. The results of new observations embittered the Inquisition more and more. Mountains on the Moon, spots on the Sun, four satellites of Jupiter, and the dissimilarity of Saturn to other planets were discovered. In response, the church accuses Galileo of blasphemy and fraud, presenting the scientist’s conclusions as a consequence of optical illusion.

The massacre of Giordano Bruno was a serious warning. When in 1616

1. Introduction

A congregation of 11 Dominicans and Jesuits declared the teachings of Copernicus heretical, and Galileo was privately advised to dissociate himself from these views. Formally, the scientist submitted to the demands of the Inquisition.

In 1623, the papal throne was occupied by Galileo's friend Cardinal Barberini, who was known as the patron of the sciences and arts. He took the name Urban VIII. Not without his support, in 1632 Galileo published “Dialogue on the two most important systems of the world - Ptolemaic and Copernican” - a kind of encyclopedia of astronomical views. But even closeness to the Pope did not protect Galileo. In February 1633, the Dialogue was banned by the Roman Catholic court, its author was declared a “prisoner of the Inquisition” and remained so for 9 years until his death. By the way, it was only in 1992 that the Vatican acquitted Galileo Galilei.

Society had difficulty clearing itself of the infection of the Inquisition. Depending on historical, economic, national and many other reasons, the countries of Europe at different times were freed from the tribunals of the church. Already in the 16th century. under the influence of the Reformation they ceased to exist in Germany and France. In Portugal, the Inquisition operated until 1826, in Spain - until 1834. In Italy, its activities were banned only in 1870.

Formally, the Inquisition, under the name of the Congregation of the Holy Office, existed until 1965, when its services were transformed into the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which continues to fight for the purity of the faith, but by other, not at all medieval, means.

GRAND INQUISITOR

In the middle of the 17th century. German poet Friedrich von Logan, discussing the nature of sin, noted: “Human is to fall into sin, devilish is to persist in it, Christian is to hate it, divine is to forgive.” If we proceed from common sense, Thomas de Torquemada (circa 1420-1498) was characterized only by the “diabolical”. After all, everything that he did in the name of defending religion was a huge, endless sin against the man of the Renaissance, before his desire for knowledge.

The arsenal of tortures invented by the Inquisition over several centuries of its existence is terrible: burning at the stake, torture with the wheel, torture by water, walling up in walls. Torquemada resorted to them much more often than other inquisitors.

Torquemada's fevered imagination first invented opponents who trembled at the mere mention of his name, and then throughout his life the inquisitor himself feared the inevitable revenge of his victims.

Wherever he left his monastery cell, he was accompanied by a devoted bodyguard. Constant uncertainty about his own safety sometimes forced Torquemada to leave his not-so-safe refuge and take refuge in the palace. For some time he found refuge in the chambers of the most guarded building in Spain, but fear did not leave the inquisitor for a moment. Then he embarked on multi-day trips around the country.

But is it possible to hide from the omnipresent ghosts? They waited for him in the olive grove, and behind every orange tree, and even made their way into the temples. Both day and night they watched over him, always ready to settle scores with him.

I think psychiatrists call this condition melancholic epilepsy. All-consuming anxiety causes hatred, despair, anger in the patient, and can suddenly push him to murder, suicide, theft, or arson of a home. Its victims can be immediate relatives, friends, the first person they meet. That's how Torquemada was.

Outwardly always gloomy, overly exalted, abstaining from food for long periods and zealous in repentance during sleepless nights, the Grand Inquisitor was merciless not only towards heretics, but also towards himself. His contemporaries were amazed by his impulsiveness and the unpredictability of his actions.

Once, in the midst of the struggle for the liberation of Granada from the Arabs (80s of the 15th century), a group of wealthy Jews decided to give 300 thousand ducats to Isabella and Ferdinand for this purpose. Torquemada suddenly burst into the hall where the audience was taking place. Not paying attention to the monarchs, without apologizing, without observing any norms of palace etiquette, he pulled out a crucifix from under his cassock and shouted: “Judas Iscariot betrayed his Teacher for 30 pieces of silver, and Your Majesties are going to sell Christ for 300 thousand. Here it is, take it.” and sell!" With these words, Torquemada threw the crucifix on the table and quickly left the hall... The kings were shocked.

The history of the church has seen many cases of extreme fanaticism. How much sadism came, for example, from the Inquisition during the burning of Miguel Servetus (Latinized name Servetus), a Spanish physician and author of several works that questioned the theologians' reasoning about the Holy Trinity. In 1553 he was arrested by order of the High Inquisitor of Lyon. He managed to escape, but in Geneva the heretic was again captured by agents of the Inquisition and sentenced by order of John Calvin to be burned at the stake. For two hours he was roasted over low heat, and, despite the desperate requests of the unfortunate man to add more firewood for the sake of Christ, the executioners continued to prolong their own pleasure, enjoying the convulsions of the victim. However, even this barbaric act cannot be compared with the cruelty of Torquemada.

The Torquemada phenomenon is one-dimensional: cruelty, cruelty and more cruelty. The Inquisitor left behind neither treatises, nor sermons, nor any notes that would allow us to evaluate his literary abilities and theological views. There are several testimonies from contemporaries who noted Torquemada’s undoubted literary gift, which somehow manifested itself in his youth. But, apparently, he was not destined to develop, because the inquisitor’s brain, having fallen into the power of one idea, worked only in one direction. The Inquisitor was simply alien to intellectual demands.

Moreover, Torquemada became an implacable opponent of the printed word, seeing books primarily as heresy. Following people, he often sent books to the fire, surpassing all inquisitors in this regard.

Diogenes was truly right: “Villains obey their passions, like slaves to their masters.”

Top of page

Additional Information

Inquisition.

The Inquisition was the name given to a series of institutions of the Roman Catholic Church that were called upon to combat heresy. The task of the Inquisition was to determine whether the accused was guilty of the heresy attributed to him. The origins of this phenomenon are associated with early Christianity, when bishops carried out trials over heretics. But then the punishments were mild. The maximum that threatened an apostate was excommunication from the church.

Gradually, bishops gained more and more power; starting from the 11th century, the church began to use violent methods. Since the 15th century, the Inquisition began to deal with witch trials, exposing them in connection with evil spirits. The courts of the Inquisition raged across Europe until the 17th century. Thousands of people burned in the fire of the church, church courts treated Giordano Bruno, Galileo and many others cruelly.

According to modern estimates, the number of victims of the medieval Inquisition is up to 10 million people. Recent times have been characterized by the church's official recognition of the mistakes of this institution. It seems to many that the Inquisition is a sea of ​​blood, bonfires, and warlike priests. However, it is not entirely correct to perceive this institution this way. Let's look at some of the misconceptions about the Inquisition.

The Inquisition existed in the Middle Ages. In fact, it was during this period that the Inquisition was just beginning its activities. It flourished during the Renaissance, which for some reason was considered humane. During the historical period called the New Time, the Inquisition also flourished. In France, Diderot and Voltaire were already working, and the bonfires burning witches were still burning. The last burning of a heretic by the court of faith dates back to 1826. During this enlightened time, Pushkin wrote his Eugene Onegin.

Only the Inquisition conducted witch hunts. Witches have never been held in high esteem.

Inquisition

Until the 16th century, almost all cases related to witchcraft took place not in church, but in secular courts. In Germany, after the Reformation, there was no trace of the Inquisition, and the fires against witches burned with no less force than in the rest of Europe. The infamous Salem Trial, during which 20 people were killed on charges of witchcraft, generally took place in America at the end of the 17th century. Naturally, there are no traces of the Inquisition in this event.

The inquisitors were especially cruel, using the most sophisticated tortures. Cinema often depicts how the holy fathers torture confessions out of victims. The tools themselves seem simply terrible. However, the truth is that all these tortures and the tools for their implementation were not invented by priests, but existed long before them. For any judicial investigation of that time, the use of torture was commonplace. The Inquisition itself practically did not have its own prisons, executioners and, accordingly, instruments of torture. All this was “rented” from municipal authorities or lords. It is naive to assume that the executioners were especially cruel when serving the priests.

An incredible number of people became victims of the Inquisition. They say that statistics relate neither to lies nor to truth, being located somewhere at a distance. In this case, the statistics of victims are truly frightening. Until you start comparing them with others. For example, over the same period, secular courts executed many more people than the Inquisition. And the French Revolution, with its idea of ​​revolutionary terror, sacrificed more people than the French Inquisition during all the years of its existence. So the numbers can and should be treated with doubt, especially since everything is learned by comparison.

Those who fell into the hands of the inquisitors were always executed at the stake. According to statistics, the most common sentences of the Inquisition tribunal were not execution by burning, but confiscation of property and exile. Which, you see, is much more humane. The death penalty was used only in exceptional cases, for heretics who were especially persistent in their sinful views.

There is a book called "The Hammer of the Witches", which describes in great detail the procedure for torturing its victims by the Inquisition. Many have read the Strugatskys, but few have delved into history. In fact, this book talks about the theological and legal nuances of the service of the inquisitor. Naturally, they also talk about torture, since in those days the investigative process took it for granted. But there is no trace of a passionate description of the process of torture, or any sophisticated details of torture in “The Witches’ Hammer”.

Burning at the stake was used by the Inquisition to save the souls of sinners. From the point of view of the church, such an act as execution will not affect the salvation of the sinner’s soul in any way. The purpose of the courts of the Inquisition was to bring sinners to repentance, even through intimidation. Execution was applied exclusively to the unrepentant or to those who again became a heretic. Bonfires were used as capital punishment, and not to save souls.

The Inquisition methodically persecuted and destroyed scientists, opposing science in every possible way. The main symbol of this myth is Giordano Bruno, who was burned at the stake for his beliefs. It turns out that, firstly, the scientist conducted propaganda against the church, and, secondly, it is difficult to call him a scientist, since he studied the advantages of the occult sciences. Giordano Bruno, being, by the way, a monk of the Dominican order, discussing the transmigration of souls, was clearly a target for the Inquisition. In addition, circumstances turned against Bruno, which led to a sad end. After the execution of the scientist, the inquisitors began to look suspiciously at the theory of Copernicus, since Giordano Bruno skillfully linked it with the occult. The activities of Copernicus did not raise any questions; no one forced him to renounce his theory. The example of Galileo is widely known, but there are no more famous scientists who suffered from the Inquisition for their scientific work. In parallel with church courts, universities coexisted peacefully across Europe, so it would be dishonest to accuse the Inquisition of obscurantism.

The Church introduced the law that the earth was flat and that it did not rotate, punishing those who disagreed. It is believed that it was the church that approved the dogma that the earth is flat. However, this is not true. The author of this idea (also called geocentric) was Ptolemy, which at the time of its creation was completely scientific. By the way, the creator of the theory himself outlined current research in the field of sphere geometry. Ptolemy's theory eventually gained widespread acceptance, but not because of the church's promotion of it. After all, the Bible says nothing at all about the shape of our planet or the trajectories of celestial bodies.

Popular myths.

Popular facts.

The thirteenth and final method of ending the process of faith and pronouncing the final verdict concerns such an accused who, after examining his case by a judge, together with a council of knowledgeable lawyers, is found to be convicted of heretical perversity, but who is hiding by flight or stubbornly refuses to appear at trial.

There are three possible cases here.

Firstly when the accused is convicted of heresy by his own confession, or the obviousness of his crime, or the incriminating testimony of witnesses, but fled, or does not show up, or, naturally summoned to court, does not want to appear.

Secondly, if the denunciated person is considered, due to denunciation, to be easily suspected and is summoned to clarify his beliefs, but refuses to appear, as a result he is excommunicated and, stubbornly refusing to repent, bears the burden of excommunication.

Third, if someone interferes with the pronouncement of a sentence or the legal proceedings of a bishop or judge and helps with interfering advice or patronage. Such a criminal is pierced with the dagger of excommunication. If he remains under excommunication for a year, stubbornly refusing to repent, then he is subject to condemnation as a heretic.

In the first case above, the offender must be condemned as an unrepentant heretic (see p. ad abolendam, § praesenti). In the second and third cases he is not subject to such condemnation; he must be considered a repentant heretic and punished accordingly (see p. cum contumacia, and also p. ut inquisitionis, § prohibemus, de haeret., lib VI).

It is necessary to act against them in the following way: after establishing a failure to appear, despite a summons to court, the bishop and judges again summon the accused, announcing this in the cathedral of the diocese where the accused committed his crimes, as well as in other churches of the city where he lives , especially where he fled.

This subpoena states:

“We, N.H., by the grace of God the bishop of such and such a city, etc., or the judge of such and such a diocese, declare, guided by the spirit of sound advice, the following: most of all our heart grieves that in our time in the indicated diocese, the fruitful and flourishing church of Christ - I mean by this the vineyard of the god Sabaoth, which was planted by the right hand of the supreme father with virtues, which was abundantly watered by the son of this father with a wave of his own, life-giving blood, which the comforter spirit made fruitful with his wonderful, inexpressible gifts, which he bestowed with the highest, with various advantages, beyond our understanding, the holy trinity, standing and beyond touch, devours and poisons the boar of the forest (by which every heretic is called), destroying the lush fruits of faith and adding the thorny bushes of heresy to the vines. He is also called a coiled serpent, this vile, breathing poison, the enemy of our human race, this Satan and the devil, infecting the vines of the said vineyard of the Lord and its fruits, pouring on them the poison of heretical wickedness... Since you, N.N., have fallen into these damned heresies of witchcraft, having clearly committed them in such and such a place (or: so and so), or was convicted by legitimate witnesses of heretical perversity, or he himself admitted to his actions, your case was examined by us, you were taken into custody and fled, turning away from the healing medicine. We called you to give us more frank answers. But as if led by an evil spirit and seduced by it, you refused to appear.”

“Since you, N. N., were indicated to us as a heretic, and after taking this into account, you and other testimony aroused a slight suspicion of heresy against yourself, we summoned you so that you personally appear and give an answer regarding your beliefs . You stubbornly refused to appear; We excommunicated you and publicly announced it. You remained excommunicated for a year, or for such and such a number of years, hiding in such and such a place. We do not know where the evil spirit has taken you at this time. We waited mercifully and graciously for you to return to the bosom of the holy faith and to the unity of the holy church. However, overwhelmed by base thoughts, you turned away from this. Compelled by the demand of justice to conclude your case with an appropriate sentence and not being able to endure such heinous crimes any longer, we, the above-mentioned bishop and judge of matters of faith, seek you, the mentioned N. N., who has fled, by our present public edict and summon you for the last time , so that you personally appear at such and such an hour, on such and such a day of such and such a month and such and such a year in such and such a cathedral of such and such a diocese and listen to your final verdict, and we point out to you that we , in passing a final verdict on you, we will act against you in a manner consistent with law and justice, whether you appear or not.

In order that our notice may reach you promptly and that you may not be able to protect yourself with a cloak of ignorance, we desire and command that this message, containing the said appeal for the said summons, be nailed publicly on the main doors of the said cathedral . As proof of this, this message is provided with the imprint of our seals.”

If, on the day appointed for the announcement of the final verdict, the person in hiding appears and expresses his consent to publicly renounce heresy, humbly asking for admission to mercy, then he can be admitted to it if he has not fallen into heresy for the second time. If he is convicted of heresy by his own admission or on the basis of the incriminating testimony of witnesses, then he must renounce the heresy as a repentant heretic and repent as indicated in the twenty-seventh question, which deals with such criminals. If he, having aroused strong suspicion of heresy and having been excommunicated for more than a year, repents, then such a heretic must be allowed to show mercy and renounce heresy. The procedure for repentance for such is indicated in the twenty-fifth question of this book. If he appears at the trial, but refuses to renounce the heresy, then he should be treated as an unrepentant heretic and handed over to the secular authorities, as we read in the twenty-ninth question. Given his persistent refusal to appear in court, the verdict reads:

“We, N. N., by the grace of God, bishop of such and such a city, taking into account that you, N. N. (of such and such a city, of such and such a diocese) were denunciated before us of heretical wickedness, accused by public rumor or reliable testimony of witnesses, proceeded, in fulfilling your duty, to investigate whether the accusation brought against you is true. We have found that you have been convicted of heresy. Many credible witnesses have come forward against you. And we ordered that you be summoned to court and taken into custody.

The Holy Inquisition

(It should be stated here how this happened: whether he appeared, whether he was questioned under oath, whether he confessed or not). But you hid, following the advice of the evil spirit and fearing the possibility of healing your wounds with wine and oil (or write, if the situation was different: you fled from prison), and you take refuge here and there. And we don’t know where the above-mentioned evil spirit has taken you now...”

“But since we want to finish your case and pronounce the sentence that you deserve and to which justice forces us, we have summoned you so that you personally appear on such and such a day, at such and such an hour and at such and such presence and heard the final verdict; and since you stubbornly refused to appear, then you sufficiently prove that you want to remain forever in your heresy and in your errors, which we regretfully announce and, by declaring, regret. But we cannot and do not want to distance ourselves from justice and tolerate such great disobedience and obstinacy against God’s church; and we pronounce over you, who are absent, as if over you who are present, the following final sentence appointed in the challenge, invoking the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and striving to magnify the Catholic faith and eradicate heretical wickedness, as justice requires this and to which your disobedience and perseverance compels ..."

“We, the said bishop and judge in matters of faith, point out that in the present trial of faith the order of proceedings was not violated; taking into account that you, being naturally summoned to court, did not appear and did not justify your absence either personally or through other persons; taking into account that you stubbornly and for a long time remained in the above-mentioned heresy and still remain and bore for many years the burden of church excommunication and still carry this excommunication in your hardened heart; Considering also that the holy church of God no longer knows what it should do against you, since you persist and will persist in excommunication and in the above-mentioned heresies, we, following in the footsteps of the blessed Apostle Paul, declare, decide and sentence you, N.N. , in your absence, but as if in your presence, to the transfer of secular power, as a stubborn heretic. With our final verdict, we place you at the mercy of the secular court, urgently asking this court that, when you are in its power, it will soften its sentence and not bring the matter to the shedding of blood and the danger of death.”

Updated: 09/28/2012 - 19:02

3.5. The Holy Inquisition.

The term “inquisition” translated from Latin means “search”, “investigation”, “research”. This term was used in the legal practice of European states even before the church inquisition appeared.

Already in the 2nd century, discrepancies and different interpretations of Christian teaching appeared. And this is natural, because each theologian or preacher, reading the “Holy Scripture,” could in his own way understand and interpret individual parts of Scripture, logically weakly connected with each other, describing mostly mythical events and not representing any coherent theory or specific instructions . The religious imagination of the authors of the Bible created texts containing, along with some moral demands and everyday advice to believers, many prohibitions, warnings and threats in connection with the upcoming end of the world, the second coming of Christ, etc. The very content of the “symbol of faith” did not imply its unambiguous interpretation. Therefore, orthodox (“correct”) interpretations of the doctrine and “incorrect”, erroneous interpretations, called heresies, appeared.

Accordingly, those who adhered to heresies began to be called heretics. Already in the first centuries of Christianity, the struggle against heretics began. At first it looked quite simple and peaceful. The priests admonished and corrected those who were mistaken in the faith with words. If they failed, then the suspect of heresy was brought before the bishop for trial. The episcopal court was not cruel, there was no talk of physical punishment. The biggest punishment then was excommunication.

But such humanism did not last long. As the position of the Catholic Church strengthened, the fight against heresy intensified, and the methods and means of this fight improved. As we already know, after the Council of Nicaea (325), the Christian religion in the Roman Empire became the state religion, and crimes against the church began to be considered state crimes. According to legend, Emperor Constantine, who headed the Council of Nicaea and was subsequently canonized, was distinguished by exceptional cruelty. For example, during the war with the Franks, he gave prisoners to be torn to pieces by wild animals, which his army led for these purposes. It is not without reason that the murder of his wife and son, as well as other terrible crimes, are attributed to Saint Constantine.

In 1185, the Synod of Verona issued instructions to bishops on how heretics should be identified and punished. Bishops were instructed to travel around their dioceses more often, listen to conversations among believers, and, when identifying heretics, bring them to the episcopal court. At the same time, wealthy laymen were obliged to help the clergy in searching for heretics. To hunt heretics, bishops had to select the most fanatical, devoted to the true faith, firm and decisive people, from whom one thing was required: to deal with heretics as strictly as possible.

Commissioners were sent directly by the pope to dioceses with the same tasks. Thus, in 1203, several monks were sent by Pope Innocent III to eradicate heresy in southern France and Spain. They were elevated to the rank of apostolic legates, which made them almost independent of the local bishops. This meant the emergence of a new church authority with its own specific functions, almost independent of the bishops. Results soon followed. The apostolic legates of Innocent III performed their “sacred” duties with such zeal and interrogated those suspected of heresy with such cruelty that one of the legates was killed by the indignant people. We will see further that this led to a brutal war with the Albigensians.

In order to resolve on a “professional basis” and “objectively” the issues of who professes the “true” faith and who professes heresy, Pope Innocent III in 1215 established a special ecclesiastical court of the Catholic Church called the “Inquisition”. Rumors of heresy were enough to bring such a court to trial.

As is known, a trial without an investigation does not happen unless, of course, you count the so-called “troika” courts in the Soviet Union in the 30s of the 20th century. In those memorable times, these “troikas” were sent to shoot “enemies of the people” in 30-40 minutes without any investigation - why unnecessary formalities and unnecessary red tape? Stalin's formula was simple to the point of genius: “no man, no problem.”

Perhaps this example is not entirely correct, because here we are dealing with manic-paranoid mental deviations of a famous political figure. Another thing is the Catholic Church Inquisition. Everything there was solid, “according to the law.” To detect and investigate heresy and punish its carriers, Pope Gregory IX at the Council of Toulouse in 1229 established church tribunals in France, which conducted both preliminary and judicial investigations, and the entire short and very effective process.

Then such courts of the Inquisition were introduced in Spain, Italy and Germany. By decision of the Council of Toulouse, each bishop created a secret service to search for heretics in his diocese. This service was formed from several secular persons headed by a priest. However, in 1232 the bishops were relieved of their inquisitorial duties. These duties were now assigned to the Dominicans - the monks of the Dominican order. This order was founded in 1215 by the Spanish nobleman Dominic Guzman (1170-1221) to combat heresies. The Dominicans called themselves dogs of God (Domini canes). The Order reported directly to the Pope. Having no connections or acquaintances with the local population, the Dominicans were a more reliable force for the pope in the fight against heresy compared to episcopal services.

In the history of the Inquisition, researchers call the time from the Council of Toulouse (1229) to the end of the 15th century the Dominican period. From the end of the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition, which arose in the 13th century, came into force with renewed vigor.

Although the Inquisition was transferred to the Dominican Order in 1232 by Pope Gregory IX, Franciscan monks were also sometimes appointed as inquisitors. This did not change the nature of the proceedings. The injustice and cruelty of the decisions of the Inquisitorial courts, established, for example, in France in 1233, already in 1234 led to a popular uprising in Narbonne.

In practice, the courts of the Inquisition adhered to a simple rule: in order to destroy heresy, heretics must be destroyed. If at trial the accused refused to renounce heresy and considered himself innocent, he was handed over to a secular court for punishment with a copy of the verdict, on which a note was usually written: “may he be punished according to his deserts.” In practice, this meant that the “guilty” was subject to the death penalty. The death sentence was not announced within the walls of the church court, because this would violate canonical rules. The Inquisition strictly ensured that a person convicted by a church court was necessarily sentenced to death by a secular court.

Of all types of death penalty, the Inquisition preferred burning “those guilty of heresy” alive at the stake: firstly, it was hygienic, secondly, heresy was certainly destroyed by the sacred flame and, thirdly, this action was supposed to instill fear in potential heretics.

During the time of the episcopal courts, there were few death sentences, and the very first death sentence is considered to be the one passed in 385 against members of the Priscillian sect. But from the very beginning of the functioning of the courts of the Inquisition, i.e. after 1215, ominous bonfires, in which innocent people died as martyrs, flared up throughout almost all of Europe.

Here are two examples of the Catholic Church’s struggle against heresy, which are well known in history: extermination of the Albigenses and destruction of the Waldensian sect. Both of these bloody dramas began even before the advent of the Inquisition courts.

The Albigensians (named after the city of Albi in the southern Languedoc region of France) are representatives of a doctrine that spread in the south of France in the 12th-13th centuries. The Albigensians rejected the most important church dogmas and rituals, opposed all exploitation - both secular and spiritual, against feudal land ownership, tithes, etc. Pope Alexander III (before his election to the Holy See - Cardinal Rolando Bandinelli) became famous for his reprisal of the Albigensians. Two years before his death, in 1179, this bloodthirstyly cruel holy father sent Henry, the abbot of the city of Clairvaux, to cleanse the cities of Southern France from heresy. The army of fanatics under the leadership of this abbot zealously fulfilled the holy mission. Blood flowed like a river throughout southern France. The Albigensians were scattered, many died in pogroms. Those who remained did not surrender to the enemy, but only hid. This was the first act of a bloody tragedy.

The second act came already in the 13th century. From 1198 to 1216, the Holy See was headed by Pope Innocent III. Boundlessly ambitious, coming from the noble family of the Counts of Segni, this one hundred and eighty-first vicar of the Holy Apostle Peter was convinced of the need to subordinate the whole world to papal power. “The power of kings extends only to certain regions, the power of Peter embraces all kingdoms,” he wrote in one of his messages.

In 1192, the 3rd Crusade to Palestine, which began in 1189, ended with insignificant results, despite the fact that Pope Clement III (uncle of Innocent III) managed to convince the English, French and German kings to participate in this campaign. Jerusalem, where, according to legend, the Holy Sepulcher is located, remained in the hands of Muslims.

For reference: The Egyptian Sultan Saladin (1171-1193) defeated the Crusaders in 1187 and captured a number of cities in Syria and Palestine, including Jerusalem.

Innocent III began in 1203 to prepare a new, fourth crusade, calling on anyone who wanted to participate in it, even criminals. But, as we have already said, the crusading detachments turned to Constantinople in 1204, destroyed Orthodox churches and established Latin orders in Byzantium for more than half a century. Such a result could well satisfy Innocent III. But this was not enough for him, and he organized another crusade - a campaign against the Albigensians, who with their teaching could cause considerable damage to the Catholic faith, and therefore the power of the pope.

Around 1207, Innocent III sent a reinforced detachment of monks to Southern France, who were given the task of achieving the renunciation of heretics from the teachings they professed. To achieve this, the use of any means and torture was allowed: fire, water, iron, hunger. The pope set the only condition for his legates - to be relentless in solving the task. The participants in the campaign were assured that their sacred work for the glory of the church would certainly count towards the salvation of the soul.

The work of renouncing heretics in fact turned into a terrible massacre of defenseless people. The spectacle that shocked the entire Christian world was described by the chronicler Perrin in his “History of the Albigensians.” Thousands of people were hanged, burned at the stake, and tortured during interrogations. The terrible injustice and absurdity of the reprisal was that the Albigensians were true believers and died “only because they gave all their thoughts to one Almighty God and refused to believe in empty ceremonies invented by people.”

Despite the abundance of victims, the pope was dissatisfied with the results of the work of his legates: firstly, not all heretics were destroyed, some remained alive; secondly, the monks spent quite a long time working with the Albigensians - almost two years. All this, according to the pope, testified to the insufficient religious zeal of the monks in the performance of their sacred duty. Therefore, Innocent III sends additional forces to Southern France in the form of a large militia consisting of fanatical Christians, mostly criminals who, in the opinion of the chronicler, deserved the gallows. This crusader army was commanded by a certain monk Simon de Montfort, who pursued the goal of taking possession of the lands of the Toulouse Count Raymond and obtaining his title. Count Raymond was one of the leaders of the Albigenses.

Soon (around 1210), Dominic Guzman, the future inquisitor, and his fanatical monastic brethren joined the bands of Simon de Montfort.

The mass extermination of the Albigensians began. The city of Beziers was the first to besieged. For a whole month, its inhabitants heroically defended themselves, but, blocked on all sides, having used up the remaining food, they were forced to capitulate. But no one was going to accept their surrender. Dominic told city representatives that, by order of the holy father, the city would be burned and its entire population would be destroyed. The besieged realized that they had no choice but to defend themselves to the last. Desperate resistance was broken, and a terrible massacre began. The pope's legates understood that not all the inhabitants of Beziers were heretics, but this did not stop them. The soldiers killed everyone: men, women, children, old people. Blood literally flowed in streams. The city of Beziers was destroyed and burned, and sixty thousand dead inhabitants remained under its ruins.

After the destruction of Beziers, the papal army moved to other cities in southern France. Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other cities that participated in the Albigensian movement were defeated, and most of their inhabitants were brutally killed. Dominic showed particular zeal in torture and murder, entering into the bloodiest battles with a sword in one hand and a cross in the other. This fanatical monk thus laid a strong foundation for the tribunal of the Holy Inquisition that he created. He persecuted the Albigensians under the next pope, Honorius III. Dominic died in 1221.

The Catholic Church highly appreciated the work of the master of shoulder work, the main dog of the Lord, Dominic: in 1234 he was canonized.

As for another Albigensian pogromist, Simon de Montfort, after the massacre of the Albigensians, he seized lands that belonged to the counts of the cities of Toulouse and Poix. Pope Innocent III assigned these lands to Simon in 1215, although he had previously promised to return them to their rightful owners. But the invader Simon de Montfort did not enjoy the property of others for long: during the uprising in Toulouse in 1218, he was killed under the walls of this city. Simon's son continued the massacre of the Albigensians.

After Simon and Dominic, having fully fulfilled their duty to the church, left this mortal coil and went into another world, Innocent III’s successor, Pope Honorius III, briefly grieved over the loss that was irreparable for the cause of the Holy Inquisition, began to look for a replacement for them. But this turned out to be not at all an easy task. It is not very often that you come across people who are capable of exterminating the population of a large city without sparing either women or children. Finally, the holy father persuaded the French king Louis VIII, and he sent his army to help the son of Simon de Montfort, who had not yet managed to completely deal with the Albigensians. As soon as help arrived, the beating of the heretics accelerated sharply and ended with their total destruction. The few who managed to escape fled to Lombardy, but even there they were persecuted.

The reprisal against the Waldensian sect began in the 12th century under Pope Alexander III (1159-1181). The founder of the Waldensian sect was the Lyon merchant Pierre Wald, who distributed his property to the poor and wandered around the country, calling on the people to abandon superstitions that desecrated the true faith. Wald attracted many followers to his side, who began to call themselves Waldenses. The Waldenses are in many ways close to the Albigensians. Their teaching rejected all church service, except preaching, and all sacraments; it argued that bread can only nourish the body, and that charity is spiritual food. Wald condemned indulgences and the external ritualism of the Roman Catholic Church; he believed that the pope was the viceroy of Satan.

Pope Alexander III recognized the sect as criminal, cursed the Waldenses and declared a crusade against them. At his call, thousands of fanatics, grabbing weapons, rushed to Southern France. The Pope sent Abbot Henry of Clairvaux to Toulouse, who distinguished himself during the massacre of the Albigensians. Immediately upon the arrival of the gang led by the said abbot, fires began to blaze everywhere. The fanatical church army used the most terrible, most sophisticated tortures against the followers of the Waldensian sect. Thousands of old men, women, and children were hanged, burned alive, and their property was confiscated to replenish the treasury of the king and the Holy See.

In those distant times, the Catholic Church was the complete ruler of the European nations. To strengthen her dominance, she supported various superstitions of the ignorant and downtrodden masses. It is not surprising, therefore, that the fires of the Inquisition caused not only fear and protest among people with a normal psyche, but also vengeful joy among Christian fanatics, whose consciousness and reason were clouded by wild superstitions and biblical tales. And this was so not only in the 12th-12th centuries, but also much later, for example, when the great Czech humanist, head of the reformation in the Czech Republic, professor at the University of Prague Jan Hus (1415), was burned at the stake of the Inquisition (1415), and after him was burned at the stake his friend and comrade-in-arms, the scientist Jerome of Prague (1416), was abandoned. Both of these outstanding people were burned by the verdict of the Ecumenical Council of Constance (1414-1418), and they were captured by the Inquisition in a deceptive, treacherous manner. but the matter did not end there either. Pope Martin V, elected at the aforementioned council, barely had time to try on the tiara, and sent hundreds of innocent followers of Jan Hus to the stake.

In the last year of the 16th century (1600) at the stake of the Inquisition there was Italian scientist Giordano Bruno was burned. And even then there were fanatics with a mind besotted with the clergy who rejoiced at the death of the “heretic” Bruno.

It is impossible to pass over in silence such a terrible and shameful activity of the Catholic Church as witch-hunt. However, secular authorities and Protestant churches also took part in this vile activity.

In Europe, from the end of the 15th century, rumors and ideas began to persistently appear about the alleged presence among the population of women who had entered into an agreement with evil spirits, with the devil. General psychosis reached such an extent in Spain, France, Germany, Holland and other countries that a real witch hunt began there. The church handed over the witch trials to the Inquisition. Learned monks supplied the inquisitors with manuals and instructions on how to find witches, how to torture them, and how to extract confessions. The popes, in their bulls and sermons, promised forgiveness of all sins and eternal bliss in paradise to those inquisitors and judges who ensure the prompt search and destruction of witches.

The inquisitors zealously fulfilled the savage demands of the church hierarchs regarding the persecution of witches. Historical documents contain information about this truly crazy dance of death, which engulfed many European countries in the 15th-17th centuries. It is very difficult to read such documents. Thousands and thousands of women suffered horrific torture. Those who did not die during torture were burned alive at the stake. The judges themselves called these tortures inhumane. During torture, the unfortunates often developed mental disorders, and in order to get rid of unbearable suffering, women slandered others. Due to deep ignorance and stupidity, the judges accepted as truth the most absurd fabrications and slander of frightened and tormented people on the verge of madness. Slanders and denunciations increased the number of victims. The population of many cities and localities in Europe decreased sharply: after all, thousands of women of the most reproductive age were destroyed. Just one example: in the small German town of Osnabrück in the 16th century, four hundred “witches” were burned and tortured in one year, out of a total population of about seven hundred people. In similar statistics about the crimes of Catholicism one can also find terrible data about the burning alive of such “witches” as girls aged seven to ten years. And all this was done by Christians in the name of the “holy” faith! What could be more terrible on our Earth over the past 500-600 years? Let's not look for comparisons, nothing will change from this. Let us only add that the “logic” of the witch hunt was such that the smarter and more beautiful a woman was, the more likely she was to die in the terrible dungeons of a church, because beauty and intelligence always attract attention and always set a woman apart from the general mass of people.

Often the Inquisition recognized as witches and threw into the fire women who were engaged in witchcraft, collecting medicinal herbs and helping sick people with their homemade medicines. It is known, for example, that the mother of the outstanding German scientist-astronomer Johannes Kepler, who worked part-time as a herbalist, had great difficulty avoiding being burned at the stake. Arrested by the Inquisition, she was subjected to lengthy interrogations and torture, which exhausted all her last strength. Released through the efforts of her son, she soon died after almost two years of suffering in a church prison.

Perhaps the whole world knows name of the national heroine of France Joan of Arc, which raised the French to fight the English invaders and the Burgundians, who fought with them against their people, against France. Jeanne received the literary name Maid of Orleans for her participation in lifting the English blockade of the city of Orleans. The heroine was captured by the Burgundians, and they, the same French as Jeanne, sold her to the British. The king, who owed much to Jeanne for his military successes, could have ransomed her from captivity or exchanged her for another captive, but did not do so. The British kept Jeanne in prison for several months, putting a chain around her neck and legs. Then they started a rumor that the devil helped Jeanne to fight successfully, that she was none other than a witch. This was enough for the Inquisition to try Jeanne for witchcraft. And here we see traitors: these are the French bishops who tried a wonderful French girl - a patriot and heroine. Of course, these obscurantists could not think of anything else but to condemn her to death at the stake. In May 1431, Joan of Arc was burned at the stake in the city of Rouen. This caused indescribable joy among the inquisitors. Indeed, they fulfilled the sacred duty of a Christian and earned from God a path straight to heaven. And among normal people, the brutal reprisal of Joan caused anger The people's war unfolded with renewed vigor, an uprising against the British broke out in Paris, and the capital of France was liberated.

In the 20th century, the Pope canonized Joan of Arc, that is, 500 years later. Compare: the “chief inquisitor” Dominic Guzman died in 1221, and in 1234 he was canonized by Pope Gregory IX.

Perhaps readers who have not studied the history of the Middle Ages, or have studied it poorly, may ask: why were there so many witches and sorceresses in Europe then?

We answer right away: the question is wrong, because in reality they did not exist then, just as they do not exist now (persons engaged in fortune telling on cards, on wax or on coffee grounds, as well as healers and charlatans who are clairvoyants to witches and sorceresses ( sorcerers) do not apply). The point is that clergy and secular authorities have always used the difficult living conditions of the people for their own purposes. Instead of recognizing the impossibility of improving life on earth through prayers and religious processions or admitting the inability of secular authorities to manage the economy, they look for the causes of all troubles in the machinations of evil spirits and witches who sold their souls to the devil. For example, there was a crop failure - the witches arranged it; cows don't give milk - witches are to blame; It hasn't rained for a long time - the witches have cast a spell. In the dark era of medieval obscurantism, such explanations suited the superstitious and frightened population quite well. Therefore, there was only one way out: to search, find and burn all the witches and sorceresses (sorcerers were somehow less often remembered and searched for). Well, if anyone doubted the correctness and righteousness of the actions of the Holy Inquisition against witches or tried to protest, then they ended up in the fire along with the witches.

In addition to the bloody deeds of exterminating heresy and women witches, the Inquisition “oversaw,” in modern terms, Jewish pogroms. The Catholic Church also transferred these “godly” matters to the Holy Inquisition.

The end of the 13th century was marked not only by brutal persecution of heretics, but also by the first Jewish pogroms. It was especially difficult for Jews in Germany and France. Whatever the churchmen came up with, inciting the people against them. They accused Jews of the most heinous crimes and made up incredible stories, portraying Jews as servants of Satan. These fables infuriated the superstitious population. Jewish homes and synagogues were robbed and destroyed, people were beaten and sometimes killed.

Not only the Catholic, but also the Protestant, and later the Orthodox Church, together with the tsarist regime, was involved in the shameful activity of “Jewish pogroms”. All these circumstances, to a certain extent, prepared the Hitler regime in Germany in the first half of the 20th century to pursue a policy of genocide of the Jewish people.

Overall, the Inquisition was an effective means of suppressing heresy (read: dissent) and instilling the Catholic faith among many peoples. But not everywhere it was able to deeply take down its poisonous roots. In Germany, the Inquisition appeared in the 13th century to suppress the Steding tribe, which rose up against the power of the Bremen bishops. The first inquisitor of Germany, Conrad of Marburg, was killed by the rebel people in 1233. Subsequent attempts by Pope Urban V (1362-1370) to strengthen the Inquisition in Germany with the help of Domini canes (“servants of God”) were unsuccessful. During the Reformation, the Inquisition ceased to exist in Germany.

In England in the 13th-15th centuries, the importance of the Inquisition was minimal, and from the first third of the 16th century, the English church became independent of the Pope, and the English king became the head of the church.

Of the Slavic states, the Inquisition existed only in Poland for a short period in the 15th century.

The Inquisition reached its greatest extent in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and France. The Spanish Inquisition stands out especially: it is considered an independent, third period in the history of the Inquisition. The Inquisition arose in Spain, as well as in Southern France, in the 13th century, but it acquired a special scope at the end of the 15th century. This is explained by the entire previous history of Spain. For centuries, the Spaniards fought against invasions of Moors, barbarians and other enemies, which led to the development of religious fanaticism among the people.

The organizer of the Spanish Inquisition at the end of the 15th century was Thomas Torquemada(1420-1498), confessor to Queen Isabella of Castile (Isabella the Catholic, as her contemporaries called her). The Dominican Torquemada, a religious fanatic and fanatic, was worthy of the founder of the order, Dominic Guzman. In 1483, Pope Sixtus IV appointed Torquemada Inquisitor General of Castile and Aragon. Soon, Torquemada organized the Spanish Inquisition in such a way that the work of cleansing Spain from heretics and non-Christians (Moors, Jews, etc.) began to move forward very quickly. A powerful system of inquisitorial institutions was created, consisting of a central inquisitorial council and ten inquisitorial tribunals. Torquemada developed detailed, extremely cruel instructions for the use of torture against heretics.

In Castile, crowds of fanatics almost danced with joy at the sight of the unfortunate victims burning in the hellish flames of the auto-da-fé fires. But in other parts of the country, the actions of the inquisitors caused popular indignation and even uprisings. In Zaragoza, a representative of the Inquisitorial Court was even killed.

During the 16 years of Torquemada’s inquisitorial activities, almost 9 thousand people were burned according to the sentences he approved, and several thousand died from torture during interrogations. The property of those executed was confiscated and turned into the income of the pope and partly of the king. Almost all of those accused of heresy died, because... There was essentially no defense at the so-called courts of the Inquisition. The Inquisition in Spain only began to reduce the number of death sentences in the mid-17th century. In the 18th century, the Inquisition in European countries gradually reduced its activities. In Spain, the Inquisition was abolished only by the decree of Joseph Bonaparte *) (Joseph Bonaparte is Napoleon's elder brother, King of Naples (1806-1808) and Spanish (1808-1813).) dated December 4, 1808. In Portugal, the Inquisition existed until 1820. According to statistics cited in the work of the historian Loriente, the Spanish Inquisition persecuted more than 341 thousand people from 1481 to 1809 alone, of which almost 50 thousand were burned.

But no statistics can calculate the damage caused by the Inquisition to the economic, political and intellectual development of European states in the 16th-17th centuries. For the development of science and culture, the moment when the Inquisition, together with its indispensable assistant - the Jesuit Order, took over the censorship of books at the beginning of the 16th century, became especially disastrous. In 1559, in Rome, under the control of Pope Paul IV, the first “Index of Forbidden Books” was compiled. This “index” immediately included the works of Copernicus, Galileo, Bruno and other scientists. Bonfires of the “heretical” works of these and many other authors flared in city squares. The ashes of books were added to the ashes and stench from human bodies burning on the fires of the Inquisition.

And here’s what’s even more surprising: among the holy fathers who shed the blood of innocent people, there were also connoisseurs of art, in particular painting. It is known, for example, that the great Italian artist Raphael Santi (1483-1520) painted many paintings commissioned by Popes Julius II (1503-1513) and Leo X (1513-1521). Of course, all these paintings depicted mainly biblical characters and events. By the way, dad Leo X became famous in the history of the Catholic Church not only for the brutal persecution of Martin Luther, the head of the Reformation in Germany. This pope has more significant services to the Holy Church - these are tens of thousands of lives of Swedish citizens. The essence of the matter is this: the Danish king Christian II (1513-1523) tried for a long time and unsuccessfully to take possession of Sweden. In 1519, Christian II asked Pope Leo X for help, accompanying his request with a large reward. Having received the money, Leo X, without hesitation, composed and published a bull in which he excommunicated all Swedes from the church. At the same time, the Holy Father suggested that Emperor Charles V, who had just headed the Roman Empire, send an army to help Christian. Charles V agreed without delay. Having received a blessing from the pope and support from the emperor, Christian gathered troops and besieged Stockholm. The Swedes resisted courageously, but with the help of deception and treachery, Christian captured Stockholm. The coronation celebrations (Christian was now king of Sweden) lasted a whole month. During all this time, the soldiers were allowed to rob the houses of the Swedes and rape women and girls. Outrage grew among the population of Stockholm. To prevent a possible uprising of Christians, on the advice of the papal legates and his entourage, he carried out a terrorist attack. He compiled a list of people subject to arrest and trial by the Inquisition. The list included citizens whose influence among the population was great. After their arrest and trial by the Inquisition, the convicts were executed on the square in two stages: on the first day, the executioners beheaded ninety-four people; on the second day two hundred people were hanged. The most prominent citizens of the country, common nobles, burgomasters, ordinary townspeople and even spectators who were present at the execution and openly expressed their indignation were executed.

But this was only the beginning of the massacre. The massacre continued for a week and stopped after Christian was informed that a quarter of the capital's residents were killed. But this was not the end of the massacre. The priests reminded Christian that the Holy Father excommunicated not only the residents of the capital, but also the entire population of Sweden, and therefore the residents of other cities in the country also need to be punished.

The massacre of the Swedish “heretics” continued for several more weeks, resulting in thousands of innocent people dying on scaffolds and gallows across the country.

But enough, let's stop to take a breath. It is impossible to list all the crimes of the Catholic “holy” Inquisition - after all, this dance of death in Europe lasted more than three centuries. And not only in Europe. One can also recall America in the 16th century, where conquistadors with a cross in one hand and a sword in the other exterminated hundreds of thousands of Indians; in the language of the churchmen this was then called the evangelization of the natives.

Inquisition in France

The first seat of the Inquisition opened in the Languedoc in Toulouse in 1233. The inquisitors' names were Guillaume Arnaud and Peter Sella, a friend of Saint Dominic. The names of three more Dominicans are associated with their names - Arnaud Catalan and Guillaume Pelisse in Albi, and François Ferrier in Narbonne. It may be doubted whether the heretics at that time constituted the majority of the population, but, be that as it may, one can be sure that they lived in a compact, highly organized and wealthy community, enjoying great influence with the secular administration and driven by a fierce hatred against the clergy and monks All this did not bother the inquisitors - they calmly took on the task assigned to them. The first executions were carried out in Toulouse towards the end of 1233. Several leaders of the heretics were convicted and sent to the prefect of the city. Despite people's protests and riots, they were burned at the stake. In the same year, three Dominicans who went to preach in the village of Cord were thrown into a well by a crowd of heretics. Even earlier, in 1234, the inquisitors sentenced a sick woman who was literally brought to the place of execution, lifted from her bed. After the gruesome burning ceremony was completed, the bishop and monks returned to the monastery, giving thanks to God and St. Dominic for a job well done. The madness of fanaticism has reached its peak.

In the same year, Peter Sella was transferred to Carcass - a dream, and Arno remained in Toulouse as the only inquisitor. With a fierce courage that could only be born of despair, he decided to arrest 12 prominent citizens on charges of heresy. This time the secular authorities did not help him - the crowd grabbed Guillaume Arnault, dragged him through the streets of the city, showering him with curses and expelled him from Toulouse. An official order was issued prohibiting anyone from dealing with the bishop or the monks. The former, unable to buy even the most basic necessities, was forced to leave the city, while the latter barricaded themselves in their monastery, preparing for a siege.

Meanwhile, the intrepid Arnaud arrived at Carcassonne and sent a letter to his brothers in Toulouse, ordering four of them to immediately arrest those accused by him. The result of this letter was a monstrous street fight, from which four monks barely escaped. The next day, the fifth of November 1235, the councilors of Toulouse turned to the prior of the Dominican monastery and demanded that the monks leave the city immediately. Having received a decisive refusal, they called upon the soldiers to help them, who dragged the monks out into the street. Led by the prior carrying a candle, the monks proceeded in a group to the gates of the city, singing penitential psalms, and temporarily settled in Braquiville, in a house belonging to the cathedral chapter of Toulouse.

In Albi and Narbonne the first inquisitors were no better off than in Toulouse. In 1234, Arno Catalan handed over two of Albi's most famous heretics to secular authorities, sent 12 others on pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and ordered the exhumation of the remains of several individuals. An angry crowd caught him and threatened to throw him into the River Tarn. A street battle broke out between heretics and Catholics, and the inquisitor was barely saved. In Narbonne, secular magistrates refused to help the inquisitor François Ferrier. It seems that he put a lot of effort into the fight against heretics and sent many of them to prison. In 1234, the Dominican monastery was besieged by a crowd of heretics, captured and defeated. In the same year, the attack on the monastery was repeated - the crowd managed to destroy a large number of records and documents.

At the invitation of Count Raymond, the Dominicans returned to Toulouse in 1237. The city was still in a terrible state, and, perhaps for political reasons, the persecution of heretics was resumed only in 1241, when inquisitors began to tour all the populated areas of the area and demanded that all suspects be pointed out to them. In the period between Advent and Easter 1242, Peter Sella helped no less than 742 heretics to repent and assigned them penance in the form of a pilgrimage. Several, however, were burned at the stake, and several were charged in absentia - in their absence.

On the night of May 28-29, a terrible massacre took place in Avignonet, when Guillaume Arnaud, Stephen of Saint-Tibery, three secular brothers, a canon from Toulouse and a Dominican prior, together with a notary and several clerks, were killed by a whole gang of armed heretics. It appears that the attack was planned by one Peter Roger de Mirepoix without the knowledge of Count Raymond, and the band of heretics was formed in the large heretical outpost of Montsegur, owned by Peter Roger. The latter was furious that his thugs had not brought him the skull of Guillaume Arnaud, from which he intended to make a drinking cup.

Driven to despair by this event, which served as the culmination of numerous protests by heretics against the authorities, the Dominicans turned to Pope Innocent IV with a request to release them from the mission entrusted to them. Their request was not denied, and in November 1243 Bernard of Caux and Jean de Saint-Pierre arrived to replace the exhausted inquisitors. Severe retribution awaited the heretics. In March 1244, a powerful armed force, raised and equipped by the Archbishop of Narbonne, the Bishop of Albi, the Seneschal of Carcassonne and a large number of Catholic nobles, marched on Montsegur. After a short siege, the powerful fortress was taken by storm, and 200 heretics were burned on the spot without trial.

It was an important event. From that time on, the inquisitors were confident that the secular authorities would provide them with support. Thus, it is not much of an exaggeration to regard Bernard of Caux and Jean de Saint-Pierre as the first real inquisitors of Languedoc. Before the massacre at Montségur, the war against heresy was an armed war; It would seem a mockery to say that such a war could only be waged with the help of spiritual weapons. Montsegur was only a stronghold of bandits, from where numerous threads stretched throughout the country connecting its heretics with other opponents of the true faith. The capture of Montsegur was a serious political factor; he helped uncover an organized conspiracy against the Church.

So, be that as it may, it was only under Bernard of Caux that the Holy Office was able to get down to business seriously, so that for almost 50 years it could carry on its work practically unhindered. In 1285, heretics attempted to seize the building that housed the Holy Office in Carcassonne and destroy all its records. It became clear that further trouble was brewing. The heresy, which had no intention of disappearing, seemed to be taking the lands into its own hands. The inquisitors, in response to this, strengthened their own measures against her, as a result of which in 1290 the advisers of Carcassonne turned to Philip IV with a complaint about the cruelty and injustice of two inquisitors - Nicholas Abbeville and Fulk from the monastery of St. George. “This was,” observes Mr. Douay, “the first warning of the insurrection which, under the leadership of Bernard Delissier and the fraticelli of Narbonne, twelve years later, endangered the unity of France.”

The king, whose actions in such matters usually depended on his current relationship with the Pope, expressed dissatisfaction with the abuses of the Inquisition and called for restraint in the future. However, no attention was paid to his instructions: in 1301, the citizens of Toulouse publicly announced their dissatisfaction with Fulk’s behavior. Thus, the inquisitor was accused of imprisoning innocent people, calling many innocent people to trial and often unfairly collecting fines. A royal commission was sent to Languedoc; The case against the inquisitor was led by the famous Franciscan monk Bernard Delissier, who openly defended the complainants. Philip, who at that time was “at loggerheads” with Boniface VIII, considered the complaints fair and took an unheard-of step: he relieved both inquisitors from their positions.

Encouraged by the success, Delissier began a real Crusade against the Holy Office. As a result of his actions, a crowd broke into the inquisitorial prisons of Carcassonne and the prisoners were released. The population of Albi was so determined that the Dominicans did not dare to go out into the streets or even appear in churches. Their monastery was attacked and a huge amount of documents were destroyed. Riots broke out here and there, and soon the whole country was in uprising. It was at this moment that Delisier crossed the line, thereby preparing the way for his fall. In 1304, he became involved in political intrigue: together with the residents of Carcassonne, he planned to establish an independent monarchy in Languedoc and return the lost independence to Languedoc. Philip acted harshly and decisively in response. The Councilor of Carcassonne was relieved of his post, and the city was fined 60 thousand livres. At the king's urgent request, Clement V ordered Bernard's arrest; the rebellion was stopped, and the inquisitors were able to return to their interrupted activities.

In 1305, citizens of Albi, Carcassonne and Cordas again began to complain about the activities of the Holy Office, and their complaints were immediately transmitted to the Pope. As a result, a papal commission under the leadership of Cardinals Taillefer de la Chapelle and Berengar Fredol took up the matter, which carefully studied all the circumstances and carried out several decisive reforms. Less than two years later, the great Bernard Gouy took over affairs in these places. For almost 16 years, this inquisitor headed the tribunal of the Holy Chamber in Toulouse, passed about a thousand sentences and condemned more than 600 heretics. His work was so effective that when he retired in 1323, the work of the Inquisition in France was essentially completed. The Albigensian heresy - that pervasive poison - was suppressed. In Languedoc, the activities of the Inquisition continued until 1330. After this there was no longer a permanent tribunal there. Only occasionally were trials of individual heretics held; in 1357 an auto-da-fé was held in Carcassonne, in 1357 in Toulouse, and a third again in Carcassonne in 1383. However, heresy, which, in fact, gave birth to the Inquisition long before that, was already a thing of the past.

In the dark chain of events that led to the suppression of the Knights Templar in 1311, the Inquisition played an active and sinister role. The first arrests were made on October 13, 1307. Knights were accused of the most serious crimes; it was decided that heresy was widespread in their order. The Inquisitor of Paris immediately took up the investigation of individual cases. Of the 138 knights interrogated in Paris, only four denied their guilt. Torture was widely used to obtain information. In Paris, 36 people died from torture; in Sansa 25 could not stand the torment; In general, the mortality rate was very high everywhere. Even before the Pope's commission, appointed in November 1309, the Templar Jean de Cormel declared that he had lost all his teeth during his first trial. Ponsard de Gisy testifies that “for three months before my confession, my hands were tied behind my back so tightly that blood flowed from under my nails... If you torture me again, I will deny everything I say now and say everything whatever you want. I am ready to accept any punishment, as long as it is short.”

The arrests were carried out without the knowledge of the Pope; Philip the Fair gained the cooperation of the Holy Office by falsely declaring that in issuing orders for trials and arrests, he was guided by the instructions of the Pope. On October 27, Clement V, having learned about what was happening, wrote to the king, indignantly demanding an explanation for this “incredible insult to ourselves and the Roman Church.” Philip managed to deceive the Pope's suspicions, so that only in February 1308, Clement, who finally received comprehensive information about what was happening, temporarily suspended the activities of bishops and inquisitors throughout the kingdom and took over the investigation of the case. In July of the same year, the activities of the clergy were restored, but trials were not held until November 1309. Now the Holy Office already played a big role in the investigation.”

Before discussing the relationship of the Church with the Waldensian heretics and with the spiritual Franciscans, it will be convenient to turn our attention to other countries in which the Inquisition operated, and gradually bring history back to one time.

From the book Who's Who in World History author Sitnikov Vitaly Pavlovich

From the book World History. Volume 2. Middle Ages by Yeager Oscar

From the book World History Uncensored. In cynical facts and titillating myths author Maria Baganova

Inquisition The Catholic Church lost its authority, heresies proliferated in Europe, which threatened the power of the Roman throne. In the XII - early XIII centuries, the heresy of the Cathars spread in the south of France and northern Italy, who immediately put themselves in opposition to Rome

From the book Albigensian drama and the fate of France by Madolle Jacques

THE INQUISITION Indeed, up to this point the procedure, as the canonists put it, was accusatory: in principle, it was based on the fact that it was necessary to receive a denunciation of heretics in order to begin to act against them. It even happened (and we saw this in the agreement in Mo) that

From the book Kipchaks, Oguzes. Medieval history of the Turks and the Great Steppe by Aji Murad

From the book The Cross and the Sword. Catholic Church in Spanish America, XVI–XVIII centuries. author Grigulevich Joseph Romualdovich

Inquisition Acosta Saignes M. Historia de los portugueses en Venezuela. Caracas, 1959. Adler E. N. The Inquisition in Per? Baltimore, 1904. Baez Comargo G. Protestantes enjui-ciados por la Inquisici?n en Ibero-Am?rica. M?xico, 1960. Besson P. La Inquisici?n en Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires, 1910. Bilbao M. El inquisidor mayor. Buenos Aires, 1871. In?tem G. Nuevos antecedentes para una historia de los judios en Chile colonial. Santiago, 1963. Cabada Dancourt O. La Inquisici?n en Lima.

author Maycock A.L.

From the book History of the Inquisition author Maycock A.L.

The Inquisition in Italy Probably more than in other countries, the activities of the Italian Inquisition were mixed with politics. Only in the middle of the 13th century did the Guelph and Ghibelline parties come to some agreement; and only in 1266, when the forces of the Ghibelline party were defeated

From the book History of the Inquisition author Maycock A.L.

From the book The Influence of Sea Power on History 1660-1783 by Mahan Alfred

From the book History of the Turks by Aji Murad

Inquisition The campaign of Khan Batu in 1241 greatly frightened Europe. Then the Turkic army approached the borders of Italy: the Adriatic Sea. She defeated the selected papal army; there was no one else to defend the pope. Satisfied with the victories, Subutai decided to winter and prepare for the campaign.

From the book History of Anti-Semitism. Age of Faith. author Polyakov Lev

Inquisition Need I remind you that the Inquisition is not a Spanish invention? What can be considered the first justification for the Inquisition, significantly ahead of the course of events, is already contained in Augustine, who believed that “moderate persecution” (“ternpereta severitas”)

From the book The People of Muhammad. Anthology of spiritual treasures of Islamic civilization by Eric Schroeder

From the book “The Holy Inquisition” in Russia before 1917 author Bulgakov Alexander Grigorievich

Inquisition before... We say “inquisition”, but do we have the right to do so? This word is associated with the dark era of the Middle Ages, when heretics were burned at the stake in Western European countries. But the actions of the authorities when a nursing mother was imprisoned could not be called anything other than an inquisition.

From the book Books on Fire. The story of the endless destruction of libraries author Polastron Lucien

The Inquisition The Popes invented the Inquisition with the aim of suppressing the heresy of the Waldenses or Cathars, which had become popular among the people and thereby pricked their eyes; the plan immediately degenerated due to the zeal of the laity who undertook to implement it: Robert Le Bougre, the “hammer of heretics” Ferrier,

From the book The Great Steppe. Offering of the Turk [collection] by Aji Murad

Inquisition The campaign of Khan Batu in 1241 greatly frightened Europe. Then the Turkic army approached the very borders of Italy: the Adriatic Sea. She defeated the selected papal army. And she wintered, preparing for the campaign against Rome. The outcome of the matter was only a matter of time. Of course, not about capture

Inquisition(from lat. inquisitio- investigation, search), in the Catholic Church there is a special church court for heretics, which existed in the 13th-19th centuries. Back in 1184, Pope Lucius III and Emperor Frederick 1 Barbarossa established a strict procedure for the search by bishops of heretics and the investigation of their cases by episcopal courts. Secular authorities were obliged to carry out the death sentences they passed. The Inquisition as an institution was first discussed at the 4th Lateran Council (1215), convened by Pope Innocent III, which established a special process for the persecution of heretics (per inquisitionem), for which defamatory rumors were declared sufficient grounds. From 1231 to 1235, Pope Gregory IX, through a series of decrees, transferred the functions of persecuting heresies, previously performed by bishops, to special commissioners - inquisitors (initially appointed from among the Dominicans, and then the Franciscans). In a number of European states (Germany, France, etc.) inquisitorial tribunals were established, which were entrusted with investigating cases of heretics, pronouncing and executing sentences. This is how the establishment of the Inquisition was formalized. Members of the inquisitorial tribunals had personal immunity and immunity from the jurisdiction of local secular and ecclesiastical authorities and were directly dependent on the pope. Due to the secret and arbitrary proceedings, those accused by the Inquisition were deprived of all guarantees. The widespread use of cruel torture, the encouragement and reward of informers, the material interest of the Inquisition itself and the papacy, which received huge funds through the confiscation of the property of those convicted, made the Inquisition the scourge of Catholic countries. Those sentenced to death were usually handed over to the secular authorities to be burned at the stake (see Auto-da-fe). In the 16th century I. became one of the main weapons of the Counter-Reformation. In 1542, a supreme inquisitorial tribunal was established in Rome. Many outstanding scientists and thinkers (G. Bruno, G. Vanini, etc.) became victims of the Inquisition. The Inquisition was especially rampant in Spain (where from the end of the 15th century it was closely connected with royal power). In just 18 years of activity of the main Spanish inquisitor Torquemada (15th century), more than 10 thousand people were burned alive.

The tortures of the Inquisition were very varied. The cruelty and ingenuity of the inquisitors amazes the imagination. Some medieval instruments of torture have survived to this day, but most often even museum exhibits have been restored according to descriptions. We present to your attention a description of some famous instruments of torture.

The "interrogation chair" was used in Central Europe. In Nuremberg and Fegensburg, until 1846, preliminary investigations using it were regularly carried out. The naked prisoner was seated on a chair in such a position that at the slightest movement, spikes pierced his skin. Executioners often intensified the agony of the victim by lighting a fire under the seat. The iron chair quickly heated up, causing severe burns. During interrogation, the victim's limbs could be pierced using forceps or other instruments of torture. Such chairs had different shapes and sizes, but they were all equipped with spikes and means of immobilizing the victim.

rack-bed

This is one of the most common instruments of torture found in historical accounts. The rack was used throughout Europe. Usually this tool was a large table with or without legs, on which the convict was forced to lie down, and his legs and arms were fixed with wooden blocks. Thus immobilized, the victim was "stretched", causing him unbearable pain, often until the muscles were torn. The rotating drum for tensioning the chains was not used in all versions of the rack, but only in the most ingenious “modernized” models. The executioner could cut into the victim's muscles to speed up the final rupture of the tissue. The victim's body stretched more than 30 cm before exploding. Sometimes the victim was tied tightly to the rack to make it easier to use other methods of torture, such as pincers for pinching nipples and other sensitive parts of the body, cauterization with a hot iron, etc.

This is by far the most common torture and was initially often used in legal proceedings as it was considered a mild form of torture. The defendant's hands were tied behind his back, and the other end of the rope was thrown over the winch ring. The victim was either left in this position or the rope was pulled strongly and continuously. Often, additional weights were tied to the victim's notes, and the body was torn with tongs, such as a "witch spider", to make the torture less gentle. The judges thought that witches knew many ways of witchcraft, which allowed them to calmly endure torture, so it was not always possible to obtain a confession. We can refer to a series of trials in Munich at the beginning of the 17th century involving eleven people. Six of them were constantly tortured with an iron boot, one of the women had her chest dismembered, the next five were wheeled, and one was impaled. They, in turn, reported on another twenty-one people, who were immediately interrogated in Tetenwang. Among the new accused was one very respectable family. The father died in prison, the mother, after being tried on the rack eleven times, confessed to everything she was accused of. The daughter, Agnes, twenty-one years old, stoically endured the ordeal on the rack with additional weight, but did not admit her guilt, and only said that she forgave her executioners and accusers. It was only after several days of continuous ordeal in the torture chamber that she was told of her mother's full confession. After attempting suicide, she confessed to all the terrible crimes, including cohabiting with the Devil from the age of eight, devouring the hearts of thirty people, participating in the Sabbath, causing a storm and denying the Lord. Mother and daughter were sentenced to be burned at the stake.

The use of the term "stork" is attributed to the Roman Court of the Holy Inquisition in the period from the second half of the 16th century. until about 1650. The same name was given to this instrument of torture by L.A. Muratori in his book “Italian Chronicles” (1749). The origin of the even stranger name "The Janitor's Daughter" is unknown, but it is given by analogy with the name of an identical device in the Tower of London. Whatever the origin of the name, this weapon is a magnificent example of the vast variety of coercive systems that were used during the Inquisition.

The victim's position was carefully thought out. Within a few minutes, this body position led to severe muscle spasms in the abdomen and anus. Then the spasm began to spread to the chest, neck, arms and legs, becoming more and more painful, especially at the site of the initial occurrence of the spasm. After some time, the one attached to the “Stork” passed from a simple experience of torment to a state of complete madness. Often, while the victim was tormented in this terrible position, he was additionally tortured with a hot iron and other means. The iron bonds cut into the victim's flesh and caused gangrene and sometimes death.

The "chair of the inquisition", known as the "witch's chair", was highly valued as a good remedy against silent women accused of witchcraft. This common instrument was especially widely used by the Austrian Inquisition. The chairs were of various sizes and shapes, all equipped with spikes, with handcuffs, blocks for restraining the victim and, most often, with iron seats that could be heated if necessary. We found evidence of the use of this weapon for slow killing. In 1693, in the Austrian city of Gutenberg, Judge Wolf von Lampertisch led the trial of Maria Vukinetz, 57 years old, on charges of witchcraft. She was placed on the witch's chair for eleven days and nights, while the executioners burned her legs with a red-hot iron (insleplaster). Maria Vukinetz died under torture, going crazy from pain, but not confessing to the crime.

According to the inventor, Ippolito Marsili, the introduction of the Vigil marked a turning point in the history of torture. The modern system of obtaining a confession does not involve the infliction of bodily harm. There are no broken vertebrae, twisted ankles, or shattered joints; the only substance that suffers is the victim's nerves. The idea of ​​the torture was to keep the victim awake for as long as possible, a kind of insomnia torture. But the Vigil, which was not initially viewed as cruel torture, took various, sometimes extremely cruel, forms.

The victim was raised to the top of the pyramid and then gradually lowered. The top of the pyramid was supposed to penetrate the area of ​​the anus, testicles or coccyx, and if a woman was tortured, then the vagina. The pain was so severe that the accused often lost consciousness. If this happened, the procedure was delayed until the victim woke up. In Germany, “vigil torture” was called “cradle guarding.”

This torture is very similar to the “vigil torture.” The difference is that the main element of the device is a pointed wedge-shaped corner made of metal or hardwood. The interrogated person was suspended over a sharp corner, so that this corner rested on the crotch. A variation of the use of the "donkey" is to tie a weight to the legs of the interrogated person, tied and fixed at a sharp angle.

A simplified form of the “Spanish Donkey” can be considered a stretched rigid rope or a metal cable called a “Mare”, more often this type of weapon is used on women. The rope stretched between the legs is lifted as high as possible and the genitals are rubbed until they bleed. The rope type of torture is quite effective as it is applied to the most sensitive parts of the body.

brazier

In the past, there was no Amnesty International association, no one intervened in the affairs of justice and did not protect those who fell into its clutches. The executioners were free to choose any, from their point of view, suitable means for obtaining confessions. They often also used a brazier. The victim was tied to bars and then "roasted" until genuine repentance and confession were obtained, which led to the discovery of more criminals. And the cycle continued.

In order to best carry out the procedure of this torture, the accused was placed on one of the types of racks or on a special large table with a rising middle part. After the victim's arms and legs were tied to the edges of the table, the executioner began work in one of several ways. One of these methods involved forcing the victim to swallow a large amount of water using a funnel, then hitting the distended and arched abdomen. Another form involved placing a cloth tube down the victim's throat through which water was slowly poured, causing the victim to swell and suffocate. If this was not enough, the tube was pulled out, causing internal damage, and then inserted again, and the process was repeated. Sometimes cold water torture was used. In this case, the accused lay naked on a table under a stream of ice water for hours. It is interesting to note that this type of torture was considered light, and confessions obtained in this way were accepted by the court as voluntary and given by the defendant without the use of torture.

The idea of ​​mechanizing torture was born in Germany and nothing can be done about the fact that the Maid of Nuremberg has such origins. She got her name because of her resemblance to a Bavarian girl, and also because her prototype was created and first used in the dungeon of the secret court in Nuremberg. The accused was placed in a sarcophagus, where the body of the unfortunate man was pierced with sharp spikes, located so that none of the vital organs were affected, and the agony lasted for quite a long time. The first case of legal proceedings using the "Maiden" dates back to 1515. It was described in detail by Gustav Freytag in his book "bilder aus der deutschen vergangenheit". Punishment befell the perpetrator of the forgery, who suffered inside the sarcophagus for three days.

Wheeling

A person sentenced to be wheeled was broken with an iron crowbar or wheel, all the large bones of his body were then tied to a large wheel, and the wheel was placed on a pole. The condemned person found himself face up, looking at the sky, and died this way from shock and dehydration, often for quite a long time. The suffering of the dying man was aggravated by the birds pecking at him. Sometimes, instead of a wheel, they simply used a wooden frame or a cross made of logs.

Vertically mounted wheels were also used for wheeling.

Wheeling is a very popular system of both torture and execution. It was used only when accused of witchcraft. Typically the procedure was divided into two phases, both of which were quite painful. The first consisted of breaking most of the bones and joints with the help of a small wheel called a crushing wheel, equipped on the outside with many spikes. The second was designed in case of execution. It was assumed that the victim, broken and mutilated in this way, would literally, like a rope, slide between the spokes of a wheel onto a long pole, where he would remain to await death. A popular version of this execution combined wheeling and burning at the stake - in this case, death occurred quickly. The procedure was described in the materials of one of the trials in Tyrol. In 1614, a tramp named Wolfgang Zellweiser from Gastein, found guilty of intercourse with the devil and sending a storm, was sentenced by the court of Leinz to both be thrown on the wheel and burned at the stake.

Limb press or “Knee crusher”

A variety of devices for crushing and breaking joints, both knee and elbow. Numerous steel teeth, penetrating inside the body, inflicted terrible puncture wounds, causing the victim to bleed.

The “Spanish boot” was a kind of manifestation of “engineering genius”, since the judicial authorities during the Middle Ages made sure that the best craftsmen created more and more advanced devices that made it possible to weaken the prisoner’s will and achieve recognition faster and easier. The metal “Spanish Boot,” equipped with a system of screws, gradually compressed the victim’s lower leg until the bones were broken.

The Iron Shoe is a close relative of the Spanish Boot. In this case, the executioner “worked” not with the lower leg, but with the foot of the interrogated person. Using the device too hard usually resulted in broken tarsus, metatarsus, and toe bones.

This medieval device, it should be noted, was highly valued, especially in northern Germany. Its function was quite simple: the victim's chin was placed on a wooden or iron support, and the cap of the device was screwed onto the victim's head. First, the teeth and jaws were crushed, then, as the pressure increased, brain tissue began to flow out of the skull. Over time, this instrument lost its significance as a murder weapon and became widespread as an instrument of torture. Despite the fact that both the cover of the device and the lower support are lined with a soft material that does not leave any marks on the victim, the device brings the prisoner into a state of “readiness to cooperate” after just a few turns of the screw.

The pillory has been a widespread method of punishment at all times and under any social system. The convicted person was placed in the pillory for a certain time, from several hours to several days. Bad weather during the punishment period aggravated the situation of the victim and increased the torment, which was probably considered as “divine retribution.” The pillory, on the one hand, could be considered a relatively mild method of punishment, in which the guilty were simply exposed in a public place to public ridicule. On the other hand, those chained to the pillory were completely defenseless before the “court of the people”: anyone could insult them with a word or action, spit at them or throw a stone - quiet treatment, the cause of which could be popular indignation or personal enmity, sometimes led to injury or even the death of the convicted person.

This instrument was created as a pillory in the shape of a chair, and was sarcastically named "The Throne". The victim was placed upside down, and her legs were strengthened with wooden blocks. This type of torture was popular among judges who wanted to follow the letter of the law. In fact, the laws governing torture only allowed the Throne to be used once during interrogation. But most judges circumvented this rule by simply calling the next session a continuation of the same first one. Using "Tron" allowed it to be declared as one session, even if it lasted 10 days. Since the use of the Tron did not leave permanent marks on the victim's body, it was very suitable for long-term use. It should be noted that at the same time as this torture, prisoners were also tortured with water and a hot iron.

It could be wooden or iron, for one or two women. It was an instrument of mild torture, with rather psychological and symbolic meaning. There is no documented evidence that the use of this device resulted in physical injury. It was applied mainly to those guilty of slander or insult to personality; the victim’s arms and neck were secured in small holes, so that the punished woman found herself in a prayer position. One can imagine the victim's suffering from poor circulation and pain in the elbows when the device was worn for a long period of time, sometimes for several days.

A brutal instrument used to restrain a criminal in a cross-like position. It is credible that the Cross was invented in Austria in the 16th and 17th centuries. This follows from the book “Justice in Old Times” from the collection of the Museum of Justice in Rottenburg ob der Tauber (Germany). A very similar model, which was located in the tower of a castle in Salzburg (Austria), is mentioned in one of the most detailed descriptions.

The suicide bomber was seated on a chair with his hands tied behind his back, and an iron collar rigidly fixed the position of his head. During the execution process, the executioner tightened the screw, and the iron wedge slowly entered the skull of the condemned man, leading to his death.

A neck trap is a ring with nails on the inside and a trap-like device on the outside. Any prisoner who tried to hide in the crowd could be easily stopped using this device. After being caught by the neck, he could no longer free himself, and he was forced to follow the overseer without fear that he would resist.

This instrument really resembled a double-sided steel fork with four sharp spikes piercing the body under the chin and in the sternum area. It was tightly fastened with a leather belt to the criminal's neck. This type of fork was used in trials for heresy and witchcraft. Penetrating deeply into the flesh, it caused pain with any attempt to move the head and allowed the victim to speak only in an unintelligible, barely audible voice. Sometimes the Latin inscription “I renounce” could be read on the fork.

The instrument was used to stop the victim's shrill screams, which bothered the inquisitors and interfered with their conversation with each other. The iron tube inside the ring was pushed tightly into the victim's throat, and the collar was locked with a bolt at the back of the head. The hole allowed air to pass through, but if desired, it could be plugged with a finger and cause suffocation. This device was often used in relation to those sentenced to be burned at the stake, especially in the large public ceremony called Auto-da-Fé, when heretics were burned by the dozen. The iron gag made it possible to avoid a situation where convicts drown out spiritual music with their screams. Giordano Bruno, guilty of being too progressive, was burned in Rome in the Campo dei Fiori in 1600 with an iron gag in his mouth. The gag was equipped with two spikes, one of which, piercing the tongue, came out under the chin, and the second crushed the roof of the mouth.

There is nothing to say about her, except that she caused death even worse than death at the stake. The weapon was operated by two men who sawed the condemned man suspended upside down with his legs tied to two supports. The very position itself, which caused blood flow to the brain, forced the victim to experience unheard-of torment for a long time. This instrument was used as punishment for various crimes, but was especially readily used against homosexuals and witches. It seems to us that this remedy was widely used by French judges in relation to witches who became pregnant by the “devil of nightmares” or even by Satan himself.

Women who had sinned through abortion or adultery had a chance to become acquainted with this subject. Having heated its sharp teeth white-hot, the executioner tore the victim's chest into pieces. In some areas of France and Germany, until the 19th century, this instrument was called the “Tarantula” or “Spanish Spider”.

This device was inserted into the mouth, anus or vagina, and when the screw was tightened, the segments of the “pear” opened as much as possible. As a result of this torture, internal organs were seriously damaged, often leading to death. When opened, the sharp ends of the segments dug into the wall of the rectum, pharynx or cervix. This torture was intended for homosexuals, blasphemers and women who had abortions or sinned with the Devil.

Cells

Even if the space between the bars was sufficient to push the victim into it, there was no chance for it to get out, since the cage was hung very high. Often the size of the hole at the bottom of the cage was such that the victim could easily fall out of it and break. The anticipation of such an end aggravated the suffering. Sometimes the sinner in this cage, suspended from a long pole, was lowered under water. In the heat, the sinner could be hung in it in the sun for as many days as he could endure without a drop of water to drink. There are known cases when prisoners, deprived of food and drink, died in such cells from hunger and their dried remains terrified their fellow sufferers.