What marine navigation tools did the Vikings have? How the Scandinavians discovered Greenland and America without a magnetic compass. What kind of mystical “sun stone” is mentioned in the sagas. Read the answers to these questions in this article.
The ancient Scandinavians traveled a lot. So many. But if you look at the map of the routes of their trips, you will notice that this is mainly coastal sailing.
Sailing along the coast does not require navigation. The Vikings navigated the terrain. These could be river mouths, fjords, islands, capes, mountains, glaciers - fortunately, there is plenty of all this in Norway, Denmark and Sweden. The depth of the water was often measured using a lot (weight on a string). As soon as the pioneer made an oral map of such landmarks, subsequent travelers could safely use the described area as guides. It is worth noting that the Vikings stopped for the night on the shore so as not to lose sight of it when traveling through the water at night.
If the weather did not allow one to navigate the terrain (heavy clouds) or the boat moved far from the shores, it was always possible to determine the location by the wind, which was “read” by the waves, or to determine the direction to the shore according to the trajectory of the birds.
But such exceptional situations are rare; they were not critical. Because the distances along busy routes were short. For example, a trip from the western point of Denmark to England in a straight line away from the coast and with a fair wind took only 1.5 days.
Another thing is hiking on the open sea and ocean.
More than 1000 years ago, the Vikings discovered America. To do this, they had to overcome several large sections across the seas and the Atlantic Ocean, ranging from 1000 to 2000 km in length. There are 7 known regular routes of long-distance Viking expeditions in a western direction.
And here, orientation to the area could not help in any way. A more reliable system was needed. However, the magnetic compass, borrowed from the Arabs, appeared in Europe only in the 13th century.
The easiest way to navigate at sea is by sunset and sunrise, due west or east. Naturally, knowing the position of the sun at one time or another of the year. The Vikings actually traveled this way, for example, along route No. 7 on the map above. The route from Hernam (now Bergen) to the southern cape of Greenland runs exactly along the 61st latitude north.
But in order to perform more complex maneuvers and walk along more complex routes, you must, at a minimum, understand the determination of cardinal directions. And the ancient Scandinavians knew how to do this.
The firmament was divided into 8 parts (Atta). Main: Austuratt (east), Norduratt (north), Suduratt (south), Westuratt (west). And minor ones: Lundsudur, Utsudur, Utnordur and Landnordur (southeast, southwest, northwest, northeast).
On a clear night, determining the cardinal directions from the stars was a simple matter. The polar star, pointing north, also shone brightly then, although it was shifted by 6° 14′ compared to its modern position.
To determine the cardinal directions during the day, it was necessary to determine the position of the sun and know its trajectory across the sky in a given month of the year. Accordingly, the Vikings divided the day into 8 parts: Morgun (morning), Oendwerdur Dagur (first part of the day), Hadaege (deep day, Middaege-noon), Efri lutur Dags (last part of the day), Kwoeld and Aptan (evening), Oendverd Nott ( first part of the night), Midnaetti (midnight), Efri lutur Naetur (second part of the night).
"Sun Stone"
But if the sky was overcast (and this is a common phenomenon in the northern hemisphere) and the position of the star could not be determined, then the mystical “sun stone” came to the rescue. He is mentioned in the saga “About Saint Olaf”:
The weather was cloudy and snowing. Saint Olaf, the king, sent someone to look around, but there was no clear spot in the sky. Then he asked Sigurd to tell him where the Sun was. Sigurd took the sun stone, looked at the sky and saw where the light came from. So he found out the position of the invisible Sun. It turned out that Sigurd was right.
The Viking "sun stone" was never found. But recently a crystal was discovered in a 16th century shipwreck. There was hope that the ancient Scandinavians might have had the same instrument.
It turns out that some types of crystals have the ability to refract sunlight (double refraction). Many calcites, tourmalines and iolites have these properties. Iceland spar (a type of calcite) could be found on the island of the same name.
Iceland spar, calcite. Alleged Viking "sunstone" The operating principle is based on the ability of such crystals to capture polarized sunlight, which comes in circles 90 degrees from the source. Two crystals are enough to detect the sun in bad weather and even within 50 minutes after sunset. Considering that the Vikings sailed in northern latitudes, when at the beginning of summer the sun practically did not set below the horizon, such a tool was simply necessary when sailing. By the way, bees, for example, can see polarized light.
The working principle of the Viking “sun stone”. Image idea: NewScientist Recent experiments by Hungarian scientists have found that the error in detecting the position of the sun using this method is ±4 degrees, and this is a very good result. 1080 different measurements were made.
As a result, the hypothesis about the use of calcite as a high-precision device looks increasingly plausible. Taking into account the fact that there could be inclement weather over the seas and the Atlantic Ocean for weeks.
Other navigation devices
Scientists suggest the existence of three types of Vikings in addition to the “sun stone” navigation devices: horizontal board, solar compass, light board (twilight board).
On horizontal board the holes mark the months of trekking. On one side are the positions of sunrise, on the other are the positions of sunset. The current month was marked with a peg. By taking one measurement with a peg (at sunset or dawn), you can determine north by marking the midpoint of the distance between the corresponding opposite hole for the current month.
On disk solar compass The trajectories of movement of the shadow from the sun during the day for different months were noted in advance. Accordingly, by taking measurements at a certain time of the day and comparing the length of the shadow with the measurements, it was possible to determine the north.
Light board is a combination of a horizontal board and a sun compass. Measurements are made based on the shadow of a wide gnomon in the center of the device, comparing them with a previously drawn gnomic line. This board was especially effective when combined with a “sun” stone at sunset or dawn, as well as for 50 minutes when the sun was hidden below the horizon.
A fragment of a Viking Age wooden disk found in southern Greenland (Uunartoq) may have been a combination of such devices.
In order to read the values of the disk as if from a light board, a special gnomon was needed. It was also found - a solar block.
After realizing that the Vikings may have had at least one or more of these excellent navigational techniques and instruments, only one question arises: why did the Scandinavians make so few discoveries? If history had left the Viking Age at least another 100 years, then we would now read in history books how some Sigurd the Severe discovered Australia. Read it over a glass of good South Scandinavian ale :)
Sources: The Royal Society (, ,), New Scientist, book “Viking Campaigns” (Strinnholm Anders Magnus).
Stretching for thousands of kilometers, moving between settlements in Iceland and Greenland. Moreover, they did not use compasses. Researchers have long been at a loss as to how the brave Scandinavian sailors managed to accomplish such feats time after time, especially taking into account the weather conditions of the region.
A group of Hungarian scientists decided to get an answer to this question, and to do this they turned to computer modeling and ".
According to stories about the Vikings, so-called sun stones helped them navigate the terrain. As legend has it, such stones helped determine the position of the sun, even if it was hidden behind the clouds. The problem is that scientists have not found a single similar stone at the sites of Viking shipwrecks.
"It's all just speculation, really," says biochemist Stephen Harding of the University of Nottingham, who was not involved in the study. However, he immediately adds that one of the possible evidence of the existence of sun stones can be considered a whitish mineral found next to other navigational instruments at the site of a 16th century shipwreck.
Let's make a small digression here. We are talking about the year 1592, when one of the English ships, sailing to the shores of France to take part in the fight against the Spanish fleet, sank not far from the island of Alderney in the English Channel. Four centuries later, divers recovered fragments of the hull, equipment and weapons from the bottom of the English Channel to the surface. Among the finds was a white mineral in the shape of a rhombohedron, the size of a small piece of soap. The authors of the Vesti.Nauka project (website) detail that find. Apparently, this mineral was actually used for navigation.
According to Harding, there is every reason to believe that English sailors learned some navigational tricks from the Vikings, who sailed the same waters and raided the British Isles centuries earlier.
But back to the sun stones: even if we assume that such stones existed, how did they help the Vikings get from point A to point B?
Previously, experts had already discovered the ability of several types of minerals (especially ultra-pure crystals of calcite, cordierite and tourmaline) to polarize light. In this case, the light passing through the crystal is split into two beams (polarized light has a different path than unpolarized light). If you look at the sky through a crystal and rotate it, you can see concentric rings around the sun, and thus determine the direction of the star. Moreover, the stone allows you to find the location of the sun behind clouds, large rain clouds, or even beyond the horizon. The position of the luminary gives sailors a correct reference point during long journeys.
Theory is theory, but how does this method work in practice? As one of the authors of the recent study, biophysicist Gábor Horváth from the University of Budapest, notes, previous scientific works have answered positively the question of whether navigation is possible with the help of minerals. But that wasn't enough for curious scientists: Horvath, along with his colleague Dénes Száz, incorporated data from previous work into a computer simulation of travel between Bergen, Norway, and a Viking settlement on the southeast coast of Greenland.
It is noted that such a journey could take about three weeks of day sailing, taking into account the typical speeds of Viking ships (11 kilometers per hour).
The calcite crystal, as in the photo, may have been the Viking sunstone that allowed sailors to successfully travel such long distances.
In their paper, published in the scientific publication Royal Society Open Science, the authors write that using data obtained in earlier experiments, they determined the success of navigation using “sun stones”. Scientists simulated 3,600 hikes from Norway to Greenland, taking into account varying cloud conditions at the summer solstice and spring equinox. Simply put, experts wanted to understand how quickly (and whether) the Vikings could reach Greenland under different weather conditions, depending on the methods of navigation (type of stones) and the frequency of their use.
Let us explain that the spring equinox is the supposed beginning of the Viking season of travel on the high seas, and the summer solstice is the longest day (with the shortest night) of the year in the corresponding hemisphere.
The researchers took into account three factors: cloud cover (which varied throughout the day), the type of crystal used as a sunstone, and how often sailors used it. Each time the navigator "consulted" the sunstone, the simulated ship would adjust course if necessary.
It turned out that if the sailors “took readings” every four hours, then their ships reached Greenland in 32-59% of cases. But as soon as they checked the stone every five to six hours, the chances of reaching land within the allotted time decreased noticeably. And those who checked the stone every three hours or more often had a 92-100% probability of reaching the desired shores.
All three types of crystals studied (calcite, a form of calcium carbonate; cordierite, a silicate rich in iron and magnesium; and tourmaline, a silicate rich in boron) were found to be equally beneficial when used every three hours or less frequently. If the interval increased - up to five or six hours - then cordierite showed slightly better results, but calcite, a mineral known as Iceland spar, was less suitable than other stones.
Nevertheless, the scientists conclude, all three crystals would have been invaluable tools in the dangerous seas of the North Atlantic, and, apparently, some of them were used by the famous Vikings.
The simulation results showed that such navigation is indeed effective both on the days of the spring equinox and on the days of the summer solstice, even in cloudy weather. Of course, if the sailors determined the direction at least once every three hours (regardless of the type of “sun stone”), the authors of the work sum up.
For a long time, scientists could not understand how the Vikings traveled from Scandinavia by sea, covering thousands of nautical miles. It is known that they were excellent sailors and in the 9th-11th centuries they sailed to Rus' and Ireland, and in the 10th century they discovered Greenland. However, how did they navigate, covering such long distances, if the compass was discovered only in the 16th century?
Sagas and legends speak of “sun stones” that were used for navigation even in bad weather - the stones helped them find the sun in the sky, even if it was completely obscured by clouds. In particular, this is mentioned in the saga of the settlement of Greenland from the life of King Olaf, who ruled Norway in the late 900s. Interestingly, in 1948, a copy of the Uunartok disk was found, which, in combination with the same sun stone (Solstenen), could serve for navigation. According to scientists, the device was a sundial with marks indicating the cardinal directions and carvings indicating changes in the shadow.
The first to suggest that such stones really existed was the Danish archaeologist Thorvild Ramsku. In 1969, he stated that it could be a natural crystal that polarizes light (for example, calcite). In the process of observing cloudy areas of the sky, rotating the crystal, it was possible to find those areas from which fully polarized light emanates due to Rayleigh scattering. By drawing perpendiculars to the line that connects these areas, it is possible to detect the sun hidden behind the clouds, knowing its exact position.
Archaeologist Gabor Horvath and his colleagues created a computer simulation of the Viking journey from Bergen in Norway to Hvarf on the southern coast of Greenland - a voyage that took about three weeks. The model took into account 1000 such trips and the use of calcite (as well as cordierite, tourmaline and aquamarine) for navigation - an error was indicated for each stone. The journey began at the summer solstice or spring equinox, cloudiness was random. The model showed a very high success rate for this navigation method - 92%. However, this indicator was valid only if the stone was checked every 3 hours - when the course was corrected every 4 hours, the probability of success dropped to 32-58%, for verification every 6 hours - to 10%. Scientists have suggested that it was an error in navigation that led to the Vikings landing on the shores of Newfoundland in North America (the territory of modern Canada) in 985-1000. Later they founded the settlement of Vinland there. One way or another, the Vikings discovered North America and explored its territory long before the voyages of Christopher Columbus.
Although the theory that calcite was the “sun stone” has not been proven (it was not found either in their graves or in the places where settlements were located), this assumption well explains the navigational abilities of ancient sailors. Moreover, calcite was found among tools on a British ship that sank in 1592, and there is evidence of pilots using polarizing stones in the 20th century, when the compass could malfunction.
An international scientific team has collected evidence that the Vikings may have used "polarimetric" navigation techniques.
The Vikings, skilled shipbuilders and seafarers, made long sea voyages in the North Atlantic. One of the most important sea routes of that time connected modern Bergen with the southern part of Greenland and ran in the region of 61 degrees north latitude. An original navigation device - a wooden disk with serifs and a gnomon - helped them determine the direction to the geographic north on such a journey.
If the Sun is obscured by clouds or fog, the device whose gnomon is supposed to cast a shadow becomes useless. The Vikings also could not navigate by the stars in polar day conditions, and they did not have a magnetic compass.
Part of a wooden navigation disc with markings found in southern Greenland.
The left half of the device is missing. (Illustration from Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B.)
Since in the North Atlantic the Sun quite often disappears from sight for several days, the Danish archaeologist Thorkild Ramskou suggested back in the late 60s of the last century that on cloudy days, sailors used birefringent crystals for navigation purposes. Light penetrating the Earth's atmosphere becomes partially linearly polarized, and the crystal acts as a polarizer, which the Vikings could "calibrate" by noting at what position a patch of clear sky appeared brightest when viewed through the crystal, and indicating what position the Sun occupied. . The device prepared in this way made it possible to calculate the position of the hidden Sun.
Many scientists identify the birefringent crystal with the “sun stone” (sólarsteinn), which is described in the sagas. In one of them, Saint Olaf asks Sigurd to tell him where the Sun is, after which he takes the “sun stone” and determines the position of the “invisible” (and the weather was cloudy and snowy) luminary on his own, confirming Sigurd’s correctness. The material for the “sunstone” could be Iceland spar, a transparent variety of calcite, cordierite or tourmaline.
It is worth noting that a polarimetric device of a similar operating principle, developed in 1948, was used by SAS pilots for navigation purposes. Natural abilities to navigate the terrain, taking into account the polarization of solar radiation, have been found in honey bees Apis mellifera and many other arthropods.
Iceland spar (photo from Nbii.Gov).
The described hypothesis is elegant and simple, but it has no worthy alternatives. At the same time, there is not enough experimental information confirming its truth; The authors of a review article in the new issue of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B tried to summarize all the available data, most of which they collected themselves.
One of the first experiments, carried out in 2005, showed that the statements of skeptics who considered a person capable of accurately determining the position of the Sun on a cloudy day without any instruments were unfounded. The researchers took several photographs of cloudy and twilight skies using a fisheye lens with a 180-degree field of view, and then asked volunteers to point out where the Sun was. As it turns out, in difficult cases people make very significant mistakes; Of course, experienced navigators would pass such a test with better results, but even they would not achieve the required accuracy.
Two other experiments explored the possibility of using "polarimetric" navigation methods in fog or overcast conditions. When observing the sky from the Swedish icebreaker Oden and from the territory of Hungary, scientists found that the polarization pattern generally replicates that established on a sunny day. However, the Vikings still needed gaps in the clouds: if the sky is completely covered with clouds, it is extremely difficult to notice the darkening of its area when turning the crystal.
The first clashes between the Vikings and the Franks date back to 834 and took place near Dorestad in Frieze. The Vikings destroyed Dorestad, an important port on a tributary of the Rhine. In 844, a large force of Vikings entered the riverbed of the Seine. Rouen fell first and was completely sacked. The next capture attempt was resumed five years later, but then one hundred and twenty ships of the “northern vagabonds” moved on and besieged Paris. The siege of the city lasted many months and before Easter 846, Paris was taken. Charles the Bald paid the Vikings 7,000 livres of silver in the hope that they would lift the siege, but the Vikings deceived the king, only delaying a new raid until the following spring. With each raid, the tribute increased and the frightened French had no choice but to pay it regularly. The Viking army was led by Bion Ironside, the son of Ragnar Shaggypants, who died in a snake pit.
The long complaint of the monarch Ermentarius, written in Normoutier, is like two peas in a pod similar to the complaints of his English colleague: “...They became more and more numerous and there was no end to them. Wherever they appeared, Christians were destroyed, cities were plundered and burned. They captured all the cities that were on their way: Rouen, Paris, Beauvais, Meaux. And also Chartres, Evreux, Billet.”
The first campaigns against Rouen were undertaken by the famous Rollon, whose statue still stands in the garden of the Rouen City Hall. Rollo had the nickname of the Traveler, because due to his enormous height and weight, not a single horse could stand him. He was one of the high-born Vikings and one of the first to convert to Christianity in 911. In 922, King Charles the Simple gave him ownership of all of Normandy. Under him, Normandy became a prosperous country.
It is impossible not to say that in the museum of the city of Bayeux in Normandy, one can still admire the “Bayeux Tapestry”, where fifty-eight scenes from the life of the Vikings are depicted on seventy meters. The tapestry dates back to the 11th century and illustrates Viking life in great detail. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that almost no images of fearless tramps have reached us.
The Vikings were not just people associated with the sea, skilled shipbuilders. We can say that they, like fairy-tale centaurs, represented complete unity with the ships on which they sailed. The ship was part of their life, culture and even death. Not a single people in Europe chose their tombs under sails. The Vikings even went to the afterlife on their favorite ships.
In Europe of the 8th-11th centuries they were unsurpassed navigators. They built ships of various types: for river navigation, for navigation in inland seas, warships, transport and cargo ships, as well as Knarr-type ships for mass immigration with families, household utensils and livestock. Only this ship was suitable for long journeys.
How did the Vikings navigate the sea without knowing either a chronometer or a chronometer? Just like those who are close to the sea element. Everything served as a clue to them. They literally swam in the seas like “fish in water.” The depth and temperature of the water indicated the location of their ship. The Vikings knew how to navigate by the moon, sun and stars. All types of sea animals, birds and fish served as their guide. The famous Viking ravens are immortalized in their sagas. If the raven returned, it means that the land was still far away; near the shore, brave sailors navigated by icebergs and rocks. Sailing was mainly carried out from April to October for the simple reason that the weather at this time of year is quite stable, the wind is not very strong from the west, and the nights are quite light, so that the guiding North Star is clearly visible in the sky.
Twelve ships have been found so far. Of these, five in 1962 in Denmark: two military vessels, one fishing vessel, a small merchant vessel, one large Knarr-class ship. Immediately after being removed from the water, they were placed in special hangars, where they were constantly watered so that they would not crack, abruptly changing the elements, and then gradually, board by board, they were restored. We have a unique opportunity to get better acquainted with the Knar ship called Rede Orm. He carried goods for sale in Europe: whale walrus tusks, polar bear fur, and even live cubs, which in those days were fashionable to be kept at royal courts in Europe. The dimensions of the vessel reached approximately 16.3x4.5x:2 m. The hull was made of pine, the oars were made of oak or linden. Some boards turned out to be replaced by others from southern tree species, which indicates the length of the journey. The estimated area of the sail is about 100 square meters. m., with a displacement of 15-20 tons, Knarr looked like just a giant monster among the boats intended for navigation on rivers, and was driven by strong winds. The helm was located on the third deck and could be fixed in one position.
The Vikings' ability to use currents made their ships very fast. They could do up to 120 nautical miles per day. The sail was low and wide, usually woolen, striped, red and white. It is known that Viking navigators plotted all the features of the coastal topography on their maps, and their maps were very accurate. Sailors all over the world used the sailing directions of the “northern tramps” right up to the 19th century.
When it comes to the Vikings, there are always more questions than answers. We do not know what the Swedish Viking merchant ships were like, what their warships were like, or what the shallow burial ships were like, transporting noble Vikings to Valhalla, the kingdom of the dead. But we know the names of the ships: “Long Serpent”, “Sea Bird”, “Walking on the Waves”.
The discovery of ancient ships on the shores of the Oslo fjord in 1890 became a sensation. This inspired our contemporaries to try to reproduce Viking ships and repeat their expeditions.
What can tell better about a people or an individual? Of course, the nature that surrounds him, culture and, oddly enough, death. Customs associated with burial. And in this case, the Vikings showed themselves to be poets and originals, because they buried their fellow citizens on ships. In 1880, in Norway, in Goksted, archaeologists discovered a Viking burial ship. The time of its construction can be dated back to 850. He served for about half a century, and then calmed down forever along with his precious cargo. The king's body lay inside a small wooden room on the deck. The ship was filled with property, since, according to the beliefs of the Vikings, in the afterlife the deceased could use everything that he used in earthly life. Six devoted dogs, twelve horses and a peacock departed for the “kingdom of the dead” along with their owner.
Another burial ship was discovered in 1903, also in Norway. The queen was buried there with a whole set of furniture and various kitchen utensils. Noble Vikings were often followed voluntarily by their servants to serve their masters behind the coffin when they wanted to have a snack or take a walk in the garden. To kill servants, there was an old woman called the “angel of death.” Giving the faithful slave some kind of narcotic drink, the old woman strangled the girl and laid the body next to the leader.
It must be said that from the afterlife the Vikings constantly “roamed” to earth, met and spent nights with their wives, tore away treasures hidden during life, frightened enemies and generally interfered in earthly affairs in every possible way.
Three turbulent centuries after 1100, the decline of the activities of the “eternal wanderers” is widely observed. Since 1300, a significant cooling of the climate began in Greenland. Those Vikings who settled there suffered from a long winter, hunger and warlike Eskimos. In Iceland and Norway at the same time, their brethren were literally mowed down by the plague, and their native Scandinavia had lost its former power in Europe, and it had no time to help its compatriots scattered around the world. The last trace recorded in the Greenland Viking Book dates back to 1408. This is a marriage certificate. Well! The Vikings surprised the world with their originality.
There lived a man named Torvald. Guilty of many crimes in his homeland, Thorvald and his son left Norway. His son's name was Eirik Thorvaldson, or Eirik the Red, so nicknamed for his hair color and violent temperament. He was a man of irrepressible energy and, moreover, headstrong. Disobedience threatened death. And then Eirik the Red decided to look for the country that Gunbjorn, son of Ulf, saw when he wandered west of Iceland in 981.
For three years, such was the period of exile, Eirik the Red explored the Greenland shores for future settlements. He named his favorite areas of land Greenland (“Green Land”). The Book of Farmers says: “he believed that people would rush to a country with a beautiful name.” Greenland is the last refuge of the Vikings. And we know nothing more about this story.