The vocabulary of our language includes not only native Russian words. There are also borrowed ones among them. What are the origins of this phenomenon?
Reasons for borrowing
The life of any people is certainly connected with other countries and states. This usually occurs through economic, cultural and trade relations. The vocabularies of peoples also experience mutual influence during contact. And this is not surprising, because language is the main means of communication. As a result of this influence, foreign words necessarily appear in the dictionary of a particular people.
Borrowing history
Since the eighth century, various foreign words began to enter the Russian language. This phenomenon became one of the ways to develop his vocabulary. There is nothing surprising about this. The fact is that the vocabulary of any people at all times has been sensitive to the changing needs of society. Borrowed words in the Russian language appeared in the process of developing relations between countries. They came to us due to the fact that the corresponding concepts were absent in the vocabulary of our people.
The nature and volume of borrowing can indicate the historical paths of scientific, cultural and economic ties, as well as geographical discoveries. The result of all these processes was the penetration into Russian phraseology and the vocabulary of other languages.
Main stages
In history, one can observe certain periods that differ from each other in their preferential borrowing. So, in the most ancient period, many words came to us from Latin and Germanic languages. The next stage is associated with the colonization of North-Eastern and Northern Rus' by the Slavs. During this period, numerous borrowed words in the Russian language appeared from the Finno-Ugric vocabulary. At the next historical stage, Christianity began to emerge.
This was a period when borrowings appeared in the Russian language from Old Church Slavonic and Greek. Some changes affected the vocabulary in the 16th-18th centuries. This period is characterized by borrowings from the Polish language. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the bulk of foreign words entered our dictionary thanks to connections with the French and German peoples. The next period concerned English words. They began to enrich our vocabulary in large quantities in the 20-21st centuries.
Linguistic signs of borrowings
What can we say about the foreign origin of the word? The main features of borrowing are:
- The sound "a" at the beginning of a word. This construction contradicts our phonetic laws. Those starting with the letter "a" are borrowed words in the Russian language. Examples of words of this type are numerous. These are “abbot” and “aria”, “lampshade” and “anathema”, “arba” and “paragraph”, “angel” and “questionnaire”.
- The sound "e" at the beginning of a word. This is how Latinisms and Greekisms usually begin. For example, “era” and “epoch”, “exam” and “ethics”, “effect” and “floor”.
- The "f" sound in a word. The fact is that the Eastern Slavs did not have such a sound in their language. It appeared only to denote letters in borrowed words. These are “fact” and “forum”, “sofa” and “scam”, “broadcast” and “form”, “profile” and “film”.
- Using a combination of two or more vowels in words. According to the laws of our phonetics, such a construction was simply unacceptable. This is why it is so easy to find borrowed words in Russian. Examples of words: "punctuation" and "radio", "theater" and "out", "poet" and "veil", "cocoa" and "halo".
- A harmonious combination of identical vowel sounds. This feature is characteristic of the Turkic language. These are words such as “pencil” and “shoe”, “sarafan” and “caravan”, “drum” and “ataman”.
A morphological feature of foreign words in some cases is their immutability. These are nouns that sound the same in any case and do not have a specific singular or plural form. Examples of such words are the following: “taxi” and “coat”, “coffee” and “maxi”, “beige” and “mini”.
History of borrowing French words
A significant part of the foreign words that are included in the vocabulary of the Russian language are Gallicisms. The term comes from the Latin "Gallic". It means expressions and words that were borrowed from the French people and constructed according to the phonetic laws of their language.
Gallicism became especially pronounced in the 18th century. It was during this period that French words confidently entered Russian speech. They were literally imbued with the spirit of this European country. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from French are “visiter” and “charm”, “compliment” and “favorite”, “curtsey” and “cavalier”, “guverner” and “cocotte”.
Gallicisms have penetrated into all spheres of human activity and life. This especially affected wardrobe items. This is indicated by the following words, borrowed from French, like “costume jewelry” and “accessory”, “jabot” and “veil”, “peignoir” and “manteau”. A lot of Gallicisms have appeared in the culinary field. The Russian dictionary has been replenished with such words as “mayonnaise” and “meringue”, “mashed potatoes” and “delicacy”.
Many Gallicisms are associated with the sphere of art. These are “accordion” and “overture”, “debut” and “poster”, “applause” and “palette”, “vaudeville” and “ensemble”.
The infusion of Gallicisms into the Russian language did not stop in the 19th and 20th centuries. Foreign words in this era were usually associated with economics, social life and politics. The following examples can be given: “diplomat” and “bureaucracy”, “democrat” and “capitalism”, “shareholder” and “press”, “budget” and “bourgeoisie”. Words such as “run” and “authoritarian” are also borrowed from French. Gallicisms include “exaggerate” and “importer”.
French loanwords in the Russian language are an example of how a foreign culture becomes an example to follow. A particularly strong influence of Gallicisms on Russian vocabulary was observed in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the next two centuries, borrowed words began to be considered more prestigious and beautiful. For example, "boutique". In France this is a small shop. In Russia, this word took on a completely different meaning. Boutiques began to be called expensive stores offering customers fashionable clothes.
Phraseologisms borrowed from French
Gallicisms include not only words. Many phraseological units and catchphrases have passed from French into Russian. At one time they were uttered by political or historical figures - kings and politicians, generals, etc.
One of these expressions belongs to Louis VIII. He said: "Precision is the courtesy of kings." The era of religious wars in France gave us such a phrase as “a state within a state.” It concerned rich youth from the bourgeois-noble classes, wasting their lives. And the “old guard” was the name given to selected units of Napoleonic troops. They included the best soldiers and officers. Everyone knows the expression “Balzac age.” It belongs to the group of literary borrowings.
It is interesting that such a common expression among us as “out of place” is also a Gallicism. Literally it means “to be in an unenviable position.”
The history of the appearance of German words in Russian
The process of penetration of Germanic vocabulary began in the 13th century. It intensified significantly three centuries later. However, borrowed words in Russian from German began to appear most often in the 17th and 18th centuries. Their penetration occurred not only through written means, but also through oral means. The list of German loanwords in Russian is quite impressive. It concerns the following sections of vocabulary:
Military - “assault” and “parade ground”, “carriage”, “corporal” and “bayonet”, “grenade” and “soldier”;
Production - “chisel” and “workbench”, “washer” and “shaft”, “matrix” and “slate”, “template” and “format”;
Merchant - “accountant” and “freight”, “bill” and “cashier”;
Medical - “paramedic” and “bandage”, “plaster” and “cotton wool”, “syringe” and “resort”;
Socio-political - “dictation” and “falsification”, “aggressor” and “priority”, “slogan” and “discrimination”;
Chess art - "grandmaster" and "endgame";
Household - “sandwich” and “pretzel”, “dumplings” and “pate”, “apron” and “rutabaga”, “hairdresser” and “corkscrew”;
Arts - “landscape” and “easel”, “tour” and “dance”, “flute” and “choreographer”.
The main grammatical and phonetic features of borrowed German words are combinations of sounds “ey”, “ay”, as well as the initial “shp”, “sht” (“spy”, “stamp”). In addition, they are given out by an addition that does not have connecting vowels (“mouthpiece”, “sideburns”).
The history of the appearance of Anglicisms
Borrowings from Foggy Albion entered our language much later than French and German words. This process began in the 16th century. This period was characterized by successful trade between countries. Borrowed words in Russian from English appeared along with new concepts and goods, as well as scientific works.
The next active period of penetration of Anglicisms into our language began in the times of Peter the Great. During this period, borrowings that came to us from the British Isles concerned trade, everyday relations, as well as scientific activities.
In imperial Russia, prestige in English remained at a high level thanks to the significant role of Great Britain on the world stage. The following stages of borrowing date back to the 20s of the twentieth century. This was the period of formation of the independent Russian state.
Examples of Anglicisms
Borrowed words in the Russian language, which came to us from Britain, began to especially replenish our vocabulary after 1925. These are “stand” and “combine”, “tanker” and “container”, “TV” and “trolleybus”, etc.
Strengthening interaction with Western European countries at the end of the 20th century. led to the appearance of numerous borrowed words in Russian from English during this period. Examples are found in all areas of activity. There is nothing surprising in this, because English is the language of the global Internet, the largest radio and television companies, as well as many magazines and newspapers.
Borrowed words in Russian from English, examples from the following areas:
Socio-political - “businessman”, “management”, “dealer”;
Computer technology - "laptop", "hacker", "monitor".
Currently, there is a large list of wardrobe items, the names of which came to us from abroad. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from English are “grinders” and “body”, “cardigan” and “top”. You can also find “foreigners” in the cultural sphere - “promotion”, “remix”, “show business”, etc.
The formation of the national English language was mainly completed in the so-called Early Modern English period - approximately until the middle of the 17th century. During this time, the national English language, in general, acquired its modern character. The vocabulary was enriched by a huge number of words borrowed from Latin, which reflected the development of scientific thought during the Renaissance.
At the same time, old borrowings from French (of Latin origin) were in many cases subjected to Latinization in this era. The rapid development of trade, economic and cultural relations with various countries during the New England period and, in particular, the English colonization of overseas lands in the 18th-19th centuries introduced into the English language more or less words from a wide variety of different languages peace. In recent times, the international lexical element in the English language has grown significantly, mainly scientific, technical and socio-political terms.
The English vocabulary contains a significant number of words borrowed from the Russian language, which will require special consideration.
Since regular trade and economic relations between the two states were established quite late, only by the 16th century, and were initially limited, borrowings from the Russian language are not as numerous as, for example, from French, Italian or German. However, in the English descriptions of the Moscow state that have survived to this day, there are a number of Russian words from the sphere of everyday life, government, social relations, systems of measures, monetary units, etc.
The earliest borrowing from the Russian language is the word sable (sable), which is not surprising, since Russian furs of exceptional quality, and especially sable, were highly valued in Europe. In English dictionaries this word was recorded already in the 14th century, and, in addition to the meaning of the noun “sable”, it is also given in the meaning of the adjective “black”.
A larger number of Russian borrowings in English appear in the 16th century, after the establishment of more regular economic and political ties between Russia and England. The Russian words that penetrated into the English language at that time in their meaning are various kinds of names of trade items, names of ruling, class, officials and subordinates, institutions, names of household items and geographical names. During this period and somewhat later, such Russian words as boyar (boyar), Cossack (Cossack), voivoda (voivode), tsar (king), ztarosta (elder), muzhik (man), beluga (beluga), starlet (sterlet) were borrowed ), rouble (ruble), altyn (Altyn), copeck (penny), pood (pood), kvass (kvass), shuba (fur coat), vodka (vodka), samovar (samovar), troika (troika), babushka (grandmother ), pirozhki (pies), verst (verst), telega (cart) and many others.
Some special terms also penetrate into the English language. For example: siberite is a special type of ruby, uralite is asbestos slate. Many of these words have entered the English vocabulary and are used by English writers.
In the 19th century, with the growth of the people's democratic liberation movement in Russia, words appeared in the English language that reflected this socio-political movement. For example, decembrist (Decembrist), nihilist (nihilist), nihilism (nihilism), narodnik (populist), intelligentsia (intelligentsia). By the way, the last word was borrowed from Russian not directly, but through the Polish language. Of course, the roots of such words as nihilist, decembrist, intelligentsia are Latin. However, these words are borrowings from the Russian language, since they arose in Russia, in connection with certain phenomena of Russian reality.
In addition to the above-mentioned words, other Russian words also penetrated into the English language in the 18th-19th centuries. Many of them, such as ispravnik (police officer), miroed (world eater), obrok (tire), barshina (corvee) and others, are currently historical terms in Russian, and in English they are found only in historical descriptions or in historical novels.
One of the most interesting Russian borrowings, which has become widespread in modern English, is the word mammoth (mammoth). This word was borrowed in the 18th century, and should have entered the vocabulary as mamont, but in the process of borrowing it “lost” the letter n. Moreover, according to the rules, the sound [t] is indicated in writing by the combination th. After all the changes, the word mammoth appeared in the vocabulary in the form mammoth (this word was first included in Ludolf’s “Russian Grammar”).
It is also necessary to note a special group of borrowings called Sovietisms - these are borrowings from the Russian language of the post-October period, reflecting the influence of the new social system and the new ideology of our country, for example, soviet (Soviet), bolshevik (Bolshevik), udarnik (drummer), kolkhoz (collective farm) ), sovkhoz (state farm), komsomol (Komsomol), activist (activist). There are many cripples among Sovietisms, for example, five-year plan, palace of culture, hero of labor.
Let us give more examples of the most famous (and used in modern English) borrowings from the Russian language, as well as kalek (the most recent ones are marked with an asterisk): balalaika (balalaika), bortsch (borscht), borzoi (greyhound), byelorussian* (Belarusian), crash (collapse), dacha* (dacha), glastnost* (glasnost), kalashnikov* (Kalashnikov), karakul (astrakhan fur), KGB* (KGB), Kremlin (Kremlin), Molotov (cocktail)* (Molotov cocktail ), perestroyka* (perestroika), pogrom (pogrom), russian roulette (Russian roulette), russian salad (vinaigrette, Russian salad), samizdat* (samizdat), Samoyed (samoyed), shaman (shaman), sputnik* (satellite) , stakhanovit (Stakhanovite), tass* (TASS).
Russian borrowings that have penetrated into the vocabulary of the English language, like any other borrowings, are transformed in their sound appearance and grammatical structure, obeying the internal laws of the development of the English language. This can be clearly seen in the example of such words as copeck (penny), knout (whip, pronounced like), starlet (sterlet) and others, the sound appearance of which is transformed according to the laws of English pronunciation. The plural of most nouns borrowed from the Russian language is formalized in English according to the grammatical norms of the English language - steppes (steppes), sables (sable) and the like. Many borrowed Russian words form derivatives based on word-formation models of the English language - narodism (populism), nihilistic (nihilistic), to knout - to beat with a whip, sable (as an adjective) and so on.
However, it should also be noted that borrowings from the Russian language that entered the English language in various periods and have survived to this day constitute an insignificant share, since most of the borrowed words reflected rather specific features and realities of life of the Russian people, many of which have disappeared.
Words name objects, phenomena, signs and actions of the surrounding world. The more a person learns about the world (including himself), the more he discovers new things in it, and accordingly calls everything new in words. The entire known world is thus reflected in the vocabulary of the language. The Russian language is one of the richest in the world in terms of vocabulary. “For everything,” wrote K. Paustovsky, “the Russian language has a great many good words.”
However, any language develops in interaction with other languages. Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to language borrowing. Gradually, the borrowed words were assimilated (from the Latin assimilare - to assimilate, to liken) by the borrowing language and were no longer perceived as foreign.
Borrowed words – These are foreign words that have completely entered the lexical system of the Russian language. They acquired lexical meaning, phonetic design, grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language, are used in various styles, and are written in letters of the Russian alphabet.
Reasons for borrowing
In different historical periods, borrowings from other languages intensified both under the influence of external (non-linguistic) and internal (linguistic) reasons.
External reasons – these are various connections between peoples. So, in the 10th century. Kievan Rus accepted Christianity from the Greeks. In this regard, many Greek words entered the Old Russian language, along with borrowed religious ideas and objects of church worship, for example: altar, patriarch, demon, icon, cell, monk, lamp, metropolitan etc. Scientific terms, names of objects of Greek culture, names of plants, months, etc. were also borrowed, for example: mathematics, history, philosophy, grammar, syntax, idea, theater, stage, museum, comedy, tragedy, alphabet, planet, climate, doll, poppy, cucumber, beets, January, February, December and etc.
From the XIII to the XV centuries. Ancient Rus' was under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Words from Turkic languages appeared: barn, cart, quiver, lasso, shoe, felt, armyak, sash, sheepskin coat, heel, trousers, noodles, khan, sundress, pencil, barn, chest, trestle bed, label.
During the period of transformations of Peter I, especially many words came into the Russian language from Dutch, German, English, and French. This:
military vocabulary: recruit, camp, watch, parade ground, uniform, corporal, order, soldier, officer, company, assault, harbor, fairway, bay, flag, cabin, sailor, boat, dugout, sapper, landing, squadron, artillery;
art terms: easel, landscape, stroke, leitmotif, highlight, full house, flute, dance, choreographer(from German); stalls, play, actor, prompter, intermission, plot, ballet, genre(from French); bass, tenor, aria, bravo, box, opera(from Italian); names of new household items, clothing: kitchen, sandwich, waffle, minced meat, tie, cap (and h German language); muffler, suit, vest, coat, bracelet, veil, necklace, fashion designer, furniture, chest of drawers, buffet, chandelier, lampshade, cream, marmalade(from French).
Internal reasons – These are the needs for the development of the lexical system of a language, which are as follows:
1. The need to eliminate the ambiguity of the original Russian word, to simplify its semantic structure. This is how the words appeared import Export instead of polysemantic native Russians import, export. Words import Export began to mean “import”, “export” associated with international trade.
Instead of a descriptive name ( sniper - accurate shooter; motel – hotel for autotourists; sprint – sprinting; hit - fashionable song; killer - hitman).
Similarly, the words arose tour, cruise. This process is also supported by the tendency to create international terms. For example, football commentators call foreign players on domestic teams legionnaires.
2. The desire to clarify or detail the relevant concepts of language, to distinguish between its semantic shades. So, briefing – not just any meeting, casting – not just any competition, but primarily in the field of show business. For example, in Russian the word jam It is called both liquid and thick jam. To distinguish thick jam from fruits or berries, which is a homogeneous mass, from liquid jam, in which whole berries could be preserved, thick jam began to be called by the English word jam. The words also arose reportage(with native Russian story), total(with native Russian general), hobby ( with native Russian hobby), comfort - convenience: service - service; local– local; creative– creative ; charm – charm, charm; relaxation – rest ; extreme- dangerous ; positive– optimism. Thus, a word already existing in a language and a newly borrowed one share spheres of semantic influence. These areas may overlap, but will never completely coincide.
Linguistic features of borrowed words
Among the phonetic characteristics of borrowed words the following can be distinguished:
1. Unlike native Russians, they never begin with a sound A(which would contradict the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: profile, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
2. The initial e distinguishes mainly Greek and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this sound): era, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
3. The letter f also indicates a non-Russian source of the sound f and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, film, sofa, scam, aphorism, broadcast, profile and so on.
4. A special phonetic feature of Turkic origin is the harmony of identical vowels: ataman, caravan, pencil, sundress, drum, chest, mosque.
5. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature: poet, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability. Thus, some foreign language nouns do not change by case and do not have correlative singular and plural forms: coat, radio, cinema, metro, cocoa, beige, mini, maxi, blinds and etc.
Borrowing end XX – beginning XXI century.
Scope of use
We can distinguish two main types of borrowed words of our time. The first type is relatively old borrowings, updated in recent years in connection with changes in the political and economic system of Russia (for example, the word the president, borrowed during the Soviet era, became relevant in the 80s).
The second type is new borrowing. They are especially numerous.
In the 90s the influx of borrowings into the Russian language increased greatly, which was associated with changes in the sphere of political life, economics, culture and moral orientation of society.
Borrowings take leading positions in the political life of the country: president, parliament, inauguration, summit, speaker, impeachment, electorate, consensus etc.
in the most advanced branches of science and technology: computer, display, file, monitoring, player, pager, fax, modem, portal, processor, and also in financial and commercial activities:auditor, barter, broker, dealer, investment, conversion, sponsor, trust, holding, supermarket, manager, default etc.
Into the cultural sphere invade bestsellers, westerns, thrillers, hits, showmen, digests, casting and so on.
Noteworthy is the fact that the rapidly growing number of new names of persons in the Russian language is caused not only by the emergence of new professions - to a greater extent this is due to the fact that new subcultures are being identified, classified by way of life, by profession, by cultural affiliation. The bulk of these words are borrowed from English. In modern Russian, this group of new names for persons can be considered still developing and constantly growing:
blogger – a person who, on a professional or amateur basis, is engaged in maintaining and maintaining a blog; game designer - a person who develops the rules of computer games; downshifter – a person who voluntarily gave up a high position and income for the sake of a simple and leisurely life with his family, for the sake of spiritual self-improvement, and travel; skater – man riding a skateboard; trapper - fur-bearing animal hunter; thrasher – a young man with a non-standard appearance (plenty of piercings and tattoos, outrageous clothes), etc.
Attitude towards borrowing
Foreign words in the Russian language have always been the subject of close attention and discussion by scientists, public figures, writers, and lovers of the Russian language. Scientists were interested in what place borrowed words occupy in the vocabulary of the Russian language, from which languages the most words are borrowed, what is the reason for borrowing, and whether foreign words will clog up the native language. Repeated attempts were made to replace words that came from other languages with Russian ones (Peter I).
Borrowing is a completely natural way to enrich any language. Foreign words replenish the vocabulary of the language. This is their positive role. However, excessive and unnecessary use of foreign words complicates communication and leads to the formation of absurd phrases:
The students of grade 3 “B” made an identical decision.
Masha confidentially told her friend about this incident.
Until what time is the buffet open?
We wish consensus in the family!
Errors in the use of borrowed words lead to the formation of tautological combinations: leading leader, young prodigy, free vacancy, your own autograph, old veteran, forecast for the future, etc. On the other hand, reasonable borrowings enrich speech and give it greater accuracy.
Nowadays, the question of the appropriateness of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech (for example, in scientific speech, preference is given to a foreign language synonym - integration, not a union; flexion, not the ending). Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for specialists.
In our time, the creation of international terminology, common names for concepts and phenomena is also taken into account. modern science, production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character (medical, space terminology). For example: car, spaceport, democracy, republic, telegraph, dictatorship, philosophy.
The processes of vocabulary enrichment through borrowing occur today in all modern languages. However, how this will change the face of the Russian language, whether it will enrich it or “spoil” it, time will tell. It will also determine the fate of borrowings, which will ultimately be approved or rejected by the linguistic taste of the era.
Literature
2. Modern Russian language, edited by M., 1976
3. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language M., 1971
4. Dictionary of foreign words M: “Russian language”, 1988
5. Romanov and Americanisms in the Russian language and attitude towards them. St. Petersburg, 2000
Language tells us who we were: from those with whom we interacted, from our tendencies to change, to how we characterize ourselves.
Blitz(eng. Blitz)
Language of origin: German
In 1939, during World War II, one reporter used the word "blitz" to describe rapid action. Original meaning German word– “lightning” – reflected how quickly the word was becoming fashionable, symbolizing Germany’s constant attacks on Britain. A few years later, linguist Carl F. Koenig documented the words' entry into English in 1943 in the Modern Language Journal.
Soybeans(English Soy)
Language of origin: Japanese
You may already know that karaoke and ramen noodles came into English from Japanese, but soy may seem more European in nature. From a technical point of view, this is true: the word came into English from the Dutch “saio” in the 1670s, and meant soy-based fish sauce. The presence of the Dutch in Japan was conditioned by long trade agreements. The Dutch word “saio” is a derivative of the Japanese “shoyu,” meaning soybean exclusively, which was derived from the Chinese word “shi-yu” - fermented bean oil.
Alcohol(eng. Alcohol)
Language of origin: Arabic
Al-kuhul (English: Al-kuhul) means a type of cosmetic product, powder for blackening the eyelids. Arab scholars enriched the English language with a variety of mathematical and technological terms through interactions with the Romans and Greeks during a close period in the early stages of the world's development and later through conflict with the English during the Crusades.
In the 1540s, the word "alcohol" was Latin for freeze-dried powder, and English speakers used it to mean "powdered cosmetic." In the 1670s, this word already meant any sublimated, pure substance, even in a liquid state. In 1753, the alcohol of wine was reduced to "alcohol". When the chemical formula of this “pure substance” was derived, organic chemists in the 1850s began to name all chemically similar substances in the same way.
Shampoo(eng. Shampoo)
Language of origin: Hindi
During the period of British imperialism over India, both cultures spoke an Anglo-Indian language. The Anglo-Indian word “shampoo”, meaning “to massage”, originally came from the Indian “champna” - “to press, knead”, but stumbled over the form of the imperative mood in the meaning “You! Warm up!” - “champo”. Perhaps the word “champna” comes from the Sanskrit “capayati”, that is, “pounds, kneads.”
In the 1860s, a native English speaker recorded a new meaning for the word “shampoo” as “to wash the hair,” as the English kneaded and pressed soap into the scalp. The nominal form of the phrase “hair-soap” appeared shortly after five English words borrowed from other languages.
Chauffeur(eng. Chauffeur)
Language of origin: French
In French, the word “Chauffer” means “stoker” or “stoker”, since the driver of a French car in 1899 served a steam engine.
The word entered English around the same time as the steam-powered automobile, as the wealthy English-speaking elite often used French words for expensive cultural terms. By 1902, the word had expanded its meaning to “pay driver.”
Sauna(English Sauna)
Language of origin: Finnish
The Finnish Bath Society claims that the word “sauna” may originally have meant a heated, partially underground winter shelter. The dwelling evolved into a bathhouse, and when the English-speaking population adopted the bathhouse, it was also decided to keep the name.
Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of a missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, a long phrase “trade in a certain place once a year” in the Russian language it is successfully replaced by the word that came from the German language fair. IN modern Russia Unfortunately, we often have to deal with the unlawful and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. All kinds shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language, without at all decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In this article we bring to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.
Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of Russian language and literature. Word poetry has become so firmly ingrained in our language that we no longer even think about its meaning. Meanwhile, translated from Greek it means "creation". Word poem translated as "Creation", A rhyme – "proportionality","consistency", the same root word for it is rhythm. Stanza translated from Greek - "turn", A epithet – "figurative definition".
WITH Ancient Greece Related terms are also epic ("collection of tales"), myth("word", "speech"),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy("plaintive melody of the flute"), Oh yeah ("song"),epithalamus("wedding poem or song"),epic ("word", "story", "song"), tragedy ("goat song"), comedy("bear holidays"). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these performances. well and scene- of course, "tent" where the actors performed. Concerning parodies, that is - "singing inside out" .
If the Greeks took upon themselves the “responsibility” of giving names to poetic and theatrical terms, then the Romans took prose seriously. Latin experts will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian by the phrase “purposeful speech.” The Romans generally loved precise and short definitions. No wonder it is from Latin language the word came to us lapidary, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, condensed). Word text means "connection", "compound", A illustration – "clarification"(to text). Legend- This "what must be read",memorandum – "things to remember", A opus– "work", "work". Word plot translated from Latin means "story", "legend", but it came to the Russian language from German with the meaning "plot". Manuscript- This handwritten document, well and editor- This a person who has to “put things in order”. Madrigal– also a Latin word, it comes from the root “mother” and means a song in the native, “mother” language. To finish with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", Then - "secret" and only later began to be used in the meaning "letters", "letters".
But let’s return to the Romans, who, as we know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture many legal terms. For example, justice ("justice", "legality"), alibi ("in the other place"), verdict ("the truth has been spoken"), advocate(from Latin "I urge"), notary– ("scribe"),protocol("first sheet"), visa ("viewed") etc. Words version("turn") And intrigue ("to confuse") also of Latin origin. The Romans came up with the word blunder – “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”. Most medical terms are of Greek and Latin origin. Examples of borrowings from the Greek language include words such as anatomy("dissection"), agony ("struggle"), hormone ("set in motion"), diagnosis("definition"), diet ("lifestyle", "regime"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are of Latin origin: hospital("hospitable"), immunity ("liberation from something"),disabled person ("powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("mouse"), obstruction ("blockage"),obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").
Currently, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new, never existing words and terms. For example, allergy – "other action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as we know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("divine inspiration") was translated into Old Church Slavonic as "possession"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. Much more often, new terms were accepted without modification. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- This "messenger", apostle –"messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon –"minister", bishop– "looker from above", A sexton– "watchman". Word hero also Greek and means "saint"- no more, no less! But this is a dirty word nasty came to us from the Latin language and means just "rural"(inhabitant). The fact is that pagan cults held a particularly tenacious hold in rural areas, as a result of which this word became synonymous with pagan. Words used to name representatives of the other world are also foreign in origin. Word daemon "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means “soul” and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions overwhelming it, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to its doubts either on earth or in heaven,– this is how he explained his position.” What do the words devil and devil mean? Crap- this is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same – "seducer", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – "contradictory", "opponent", Belial- from the phrase "no use". Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "liar" and "destroyer". And here's the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel “The Master and Margarita”, is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.
Word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies came from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they came from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old dominance of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them “good people” and “peaceful neighbors.”
Word dwarf invented by Paracelsus. Translated from Greek it means "dweller of the earth". In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark alves" or "ministruists". Brownie in Germany they call "kobold". Later this name was given to the metal, which had "harmful character", – made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel name elf living by the water, a big fan of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.
Word the Dragon translated from Greek means "sharply seeing". Interestingly, in China this mythological creature was traditionally depicted without eyes. Tradition tells that one artist of the Tang era (9th century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, thunder was heard, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word Hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracana. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones also have their own meaning. Sometimes the name refers to the color of the stone. For example, ruby – "red"(lat.), chrysolite – "golden"(Greek), olevin – "green"(Greek), lapis lazuli– "sky blue"(Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in ancient times. So, amethyst translated from Greek as "not drunk": according to legends, this stone is capable of “curbing passions,” so Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments and insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - “bishop’s stone”. And the word agate translated from Greek means "good", which he was supposed to bring to his owner.
There have been cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and at different times, resulting in different meanings. For example, words colossus, machination and machine- single-rooted. Two of them come to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", other – "trick". But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.
Sometimes words are formed by combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: word abracadabra contains a Greek root with the meaning "deity" and Hebrew with the meaning "word". That is "word of God"- an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.
And the word snob It is interesting in that, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It comes from the Latin expression sine nobilitas ( "without nobility"), which was shortened to s. nob.: this is how passengers who did not have the right to dine with the captain began to be called on English ships. Later in English houses this word was placed on guest lists opposite persons who were to be announced without a title.
What about other languages? Did they contribute to Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly affirmative. There are many examples that can be given. Thus, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.
Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth".Cabal- This "receipt", "obligation",shackles – "fetters", "shackles" etc. They have long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("black or evil hand") And toddler ("like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron indicates its Sanskrit origin ( "metal", "ore"). Weight- This "heavy"(Persian), stage –"platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). Words bank(from "lay the ship on its side") And yacht(from "drive") are of Dutch origin. Words emergency ("all the way up"– over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is the “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in corduroy suits and dresses. The words came from the German language cabin boy("boy"), tie("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), Workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("run"), feint ("pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay race ("stirrup") - Italian. Scam ("case"), gauze ("muslin"), balance ("scales"),compliment("Hello"), negligee ("negligence") - French.
Italian and French gave birth to many musical and theatrical terms. Here are some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the Venetian authorities to turn 4 convents to music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from Italian cantara –"sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a work with a galloping, “goat-like” change of themes and moods), opera –"composition", tutti – "performed by the whole cast".
Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "putting things in order", overture from the word "open", benefit – "profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration –"decoration", pointe shoes(solid toes of ballet shoes) – "edge", "tip",divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "hearth". And in modern pop music the word is very popular plywood, which comes from German "to impose"(voice to already recorded music).
When talking about borrowing from the French language, one cannot ignore the culinary topic. Yes, word garnish comes from French "to supply", "to equip".Glyase- Means "frozen", "icy". Cutlet – "rib". Consomme – "bouillon".Langet – "tongue". Marinade– "put in salt water". Roll- from the word "clotting". Word the vinaigrette– exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre – "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".
It is interesting that many popular dog names in our country are of foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. Landowners, on the contrary, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs on their country estates (and even took bribes with “greyhound puppies”) and several lap dogs in city houses. Since Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them have spread widely among the people. What familiar word could a peasant who does not know French hear in the nickname Сheri ("Cutie")? Of course, Ball! Trezor translated into Russian means "treasure"(French), nickname Barbos comes from the French word "bearded", A Rex- This "tsar"(lat.). A number of nicknames originated from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik- these are variants of the Russian adaptation of the English name Bobby,Zhuchka and Zhulka descended from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack don’t even try to hide their foreign origin.
Well, what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he make his contribution to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word has entered many languages of the world man. Word grandmother in English it is used in the meaning "women's headscarf", A pancakes in Britain they call small round sandwiches. Word vulgarity got into the English dictionary because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, despairing of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.
Words satellite And comrade known all over the world, and Kalashnikov for a foreigner it is not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, some now somewhat forgotten terms made a triumphal march around the world perestroika and glasnost. Words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika They are used so often and inappropriately by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which entered the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, is frankly shameful. Words intelligentsia(author – P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian “by origin”, but they were invented precisely in Russia. From the Russian language that became their “native”, they moved into many foreign ones and became widespread throughout the world.
In conclusion, we will give several examples of the successful formation of new words that were invented by poets and writers and appeared in the Russian language relatively recently. So, the appearance of words acid, refraction, equilibrium we must M.V. Lomonosov.N.M. Karamzin enriched our language with words of influence, industry, public, generally useful, touching, entertaining, focused.