Is there a particle and? Particles: examples, functions, basic meanings, spelling

Instructions

If you need to learn how to find particles in a text, then first of all remember that this is a service part of speech. Therefore, you will not be able to pose a question to this word, as, for example, to independent parts of speech (noun, verb, adverb, etc.).

Learn to distinguish a particle from other auxiliary parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions). It is also impossible to pose a question to them, as well as to particles. But conjunctions also perform other work in a sentence. If prepositions connect words in syntactic constructions, and conjunctions - or simple sentences as part of a complex one, then we need particles, for example, in order to form the mood of a verb.

Use the verb "to be friends" in the imperative and in the conditional. You need to use shaping particles for this. Thus, the particles “would”, “b” form the conditional mood “would be friends”. But particles such as “let”, “let”, “yes”, “come on”, “let’s” will help you express some kind of request or order, i.e. use a verb in the form: “let them be friends.”

Keep in mind that particles are also necessary to express your thoughts: to clarify something, to express an affirmation or denial, to point out some detail, to soften a requirement, etc. For example, the particles “not” and “nor” will help you communicate the absence of something, the particles “only”, “only” will help you clarify something, etc. And in the sentence “Over there, behind the mountains, the sun appeared,” the particle “over there” indicates an action.

Learn to distinguish the particle “neither” from the repeating conjunction “neither-nor.” For example, in the sentence “I can neither cry nor laugh,” the words “neither nor” are a repeating conjunction, because they connect homogeneous predicates. But in the sentence “Wherever he was, he found friends everywhere,” the word “ni” is a particle, because introduces additional meaning (statement) into a given syntactic construction.

Learn to distinguish the particle "that", which is necessary to soften a requirement, from suffixes in indefinite pronouns or adverbs. So, in the sentence “Did you manage to exercise?” the particle "that" helps to add an additional shade. But in the adverb “somewhere” or in the pronoun “someone” “that” is a suffix with the help of which new words are formed from interrogative pronouns and adverbs. Remember that the particle “that” is written with a hyphen with nouns.

Know that particles are not parts of a sentence, like all other functional parts of speech. But in some cases, for example, when using a verb with particles “not”, “would”, “b”, they will play a syntactic role simultaneously with the predicate.

Creative work on the topic:

"Particles in Russian"

Performed:

7th grade student "A"

Balashova Svetlana

Morphological characteristics

A particle is an auxiliary part of speech that serves to express various semantic shades of any member of a sentence or a sentence as a whole, as well as to form moods. The particle introduces additional semantic shades into the sentence and serves to form word forms. Unchangeable part of speech. The particle is not a member of the sentence.

Morphological features: formative, negative, modal. Formatives serve to form the conditional and imperative mood of the verb. These include: yes, come on, let's, would (b), let, let. Negatives are used to express negation, strengthen negation, or give a sentence a positive meaning when double negative. These include: no, neither. Modals are used to express various shades of meaning and feelings in a sentence. These include: really, really, what for, how, here, only, only, really, etc.

Modal particles introduce the following semantic shades:

1) question: whether, really, really, for example: Have you prepared the previous material for today’s lesson? Didn't you make the right choice by continuing your education?

2) instructions: here, there, for example: Here are the necessary tools for the practical lesson;

3) clarification: exactly, just, for example: This particular specialist will be in demand to work in our company;

4) allocation, restriction: only, only, exclusively, for example: Only those who passed will be allowed to take the exams. Medical worker must be an exceptionally kind, sympathetic, merciful person;

5) exclamation: what the, like, for example: How nice it is for a teacher to see the success of his students!

6) doubt: unlikely, hardly, for example: It is unlikely that you will cope with the task if you do not make an effort;

7) strengthening: even, really, after all, after all, for example: How many times have they repeated the basic terms;

8) mitigation, requirement: - ka, for example: Repeat this topic again.

Also, particles are a class of words that express diverse relationships realized in an act of speech or text, namely: the relationship of what is being communicated to the participants in the speech act (speaker, listener), as well as the relationship between them; the relationship of what is being reported to reality (in terms of its reality, unreality; reliability, unreliability); the relationship between statements and their components. By expressing these relationships, particles realize their meanings. Some meanings of the particle contain semantic components that modify the content of what is being communicated (only, all, was, not, nor).

Particles, in addition, serve to form morphological and syntactic moods (would, let, let). In the “Grammar of the Modern Russian Literary Language” particles are classified on a different basis - by function. There are three main categories: syntactic (would, let, yes, come on, etc.), subjective-modal (after all, even, really, really, etc.) and negative (not, nor) particles. Among the subjective modal particles, intensifying (-that, even, after all, here, right), excretory (only, only), etc. differ in meaning. In the “Russian Grammar” the main categories of particles are also distinguished by function. Characterizing a sign (action or state) by its course over time, by the completeness or incompleteness of implementation, by effectiveness or ineffectiveness (it was, it happened, it happens, etc.). Particles in this grammar are also classified according to their structure: they are divided into primitive and non-primitive, into simple (and, fortunately, more, etc.) and composite; composite particles are divided into dismemberable (that would be, here and, like this, etc.) and non-dividable (it would be good, if only, if only, etc.); within the constituent particles, phraseological particles are distinguished (no, no, and; which of that, etc.). Thus, the question of classes of particles and the principles of their isolation is solved in different ways. When studying particles as lexical units in their system, a large number of intersecting subclasses are discovered, interconnected by a variety of relationships.

Various classifications can be applied to particles as units of language, taking the individual meaning of a particle as a classification unit (for example, in the classification proposed below). The most adequate to linguistic reality are those classifications that reflect the semantic properties of particles. However, analysis of the semantics of particles is impossible without taking into account the specifics of their functioning. According to the main classification criterion - semantic, particles are divided into eleven categories. Modal particles expressing different types subjective relations. With the help of such particles, meanings associated with two types of modality are expressed: reality/irreality and reliability/unreliability.

The meanings “possibility”, “desirability”, “necessity” associated with the opposition reality/irreality correspond to the particular meanings of expectation expressed by particles (simple, and, precisely, nevertheless, after all; for example, And you agreed!), surprise (well, look how), motivations, encouragements, demands, wishes (come on, well, so that, otherwise, let, if, when, it would be good; for example, I wish I was alive!; So that I would be good meeting!), reminders/memories (tea, more, same; e.g., Take some candy! - I can’t see the candy!; Do you remember her: she also sang a song to you!), assumptions (perhaps, as if, exactly, as if, like , definitely, not at all; e.g., As if someone came in?), fears (unequal); Associated with the opposition of reliability/unreliability are the particular meanings of confirmation (yes, exactly), assumption (albeit, well, good), doubt, distrust [yes, no, directly, perhaps; eg: I'll find you a book! -Yes, you will find it! (meaning “you won’t find it”); I stay. No, really? (meaning “I can’t believe it”)]. Emotionally expressive particles expressing various emotional characteristics (threat, surprise, dissatisfaction, annoyance, irony, ridicule): well, see, see, simply, directly. Some researchers classify these words (except simply, directly) as interjections as words serving the sphere of emotions. They come close to particles when they function as a modal component of a sentence.

Addressative particles expressing semantics associated with the social sphere. This semantics can be reduced to the oppositions superior/inferior/equal; yours/someone else's. This category includes particles: -ka, -s (obsolete). In the meanings of a particle, the sign of categorical/non-categorical is revealed, which leads to the sphere of modal meanings. Contextual particles that serve to identify authorial behavior and to draw attention to certain components of a statement or text. Contextual particles can be associated with the organization of speech activity (yes, and, yes, no, here, there; for example, Yes, another piece of news; Yes, I almost forgot, I have a letter for you), with various kinds of clarifications regarding the chosen expressions, filling “emptiness” in speech (or that, namely), and with indications of the transmission of someone else’s speech (they say, de, they say, supposedly). Quantitative particles expressing a quantitative characteristic of a component of propositional content from the point of view of the speaker (only, only, like this).

Negative particles specialized in expressing negation (no, no). A phase particle (was), which modifies the propositional semantics of a verbal predicate, expressing that the action began or was assumed, but did not take place or was interrupted. Excretory particles expressing the meaning of inconsistency or correspondence between the assumed, expected and actual (only, only, even, even, precisely, and).

Identifying particles [same, and; for example, He was born here and lives here all his life; I have the same book (like the one on the display)], which serve to express anaphoric relations in the text (relations of coreference or equilexicality). Gradational particles expressing an increase in a characteristic (even). Replica particles and capable of functioning in dialogue as a replicating component (yes, okay, okay). Semantic classification covers this entire class of words, but does not reflect all the properties of this class. The second classification feature is the features of the functioning of the particle: some of them can function in a relatively closed statement (well, ek, only, there, you), others can bring the statement into a wider text, being non-union indicators of connection in the text (like, and, an Well, only, even, exactly). Particles can also be classified according to their correlation with the type of speech act: a question - is it possible, is it possible, is it possible; by impulse - let it, give it, well, so that, otherwise; statement - all other particles. This classification does not cover the entire class - some words in this regard are neutral, indefinite, not marked (only, even, total). Particles, being words that have a wide variety of parameters, can simultaneously be included in several classifications. Thus, the particle is even excretory, textual, not marked from the point of view of its relevance to the speech act; particles ek - emotional-expressive, functions in isolated statements and in statements; Is the particle modal, textual, interrogative (in relation to the speech act).

Separate writing of particles

The particles would be (b), same (g), whether (l) are written separately: would read, if, here, which, however, however, hardly, hardly.

Note. The rule does not apply to those cases when the specified particles are part of the word: so that, also, also, really, or, etc.

Hyphenated spelling of particles

Particles (suffixes) are written through a hyphen -de, -ka, koe- (koy-), (-kas - dialect), -or, -ni, -s, -tka, -tko, -to: you-de, she -here, here, here, look, someone, someone, someone, some, from somewhere, yes, sir, well, look, somewhere , once upon a time, something. Note. The particle -de (colloquial) is used when conveying someone else's speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (they speak) and in the meaning of particles they say, they say; cf.: And if I see that the execution is too small for him, I will immediately hang all the judges around the table (Kr.). - My fellow countryman turned to the commander at a rest stop: so and so, - allow me to leave, they say, it’s an expensive occasion, they say, since I’m a local resident, it’s just a stone’s throw from the yard (Tv.). The particle say (colloquial) was formed by merging two words: de and say.

§1. general characteristics particles

A particle is a functional part of speech.

Once upon a time, the linguistic tradition contrasted particles of speech with parts of speech (small function words - large words with independent meaning) and included all function words. Then it was realized that prepositions and conjunctions are separate classes of words, each with its own functions. And the term particle began to be used in a new way, in a narrower meaning.

Like all “small” words, particles have a number of important features:

1) do not change themselves,
2) are not members of the sentence (but some particles may be part of them).
What distinguishes them from other non-independent words is that they serve to convey a wide range of additional meanings, emotions, feelings, and assessments of the speaker. Without particles, especially frequently presented in colloquial speech, the Russian language would be less rich. Let's compare:

Really he didn't call? (surprise) ≠ He didn’t call? (question)
Just I dreamed about this! (clarification, underlining, expression) ≠ This is what I dreamed about (neutral message)
What the night! (exclamation, assessment) ≠ Night. (nominal sentence)

Even from these examples it is clear that particles are very diverse. In this case, as for all function words, the determining factor for particles is their function (role), according to which they are divided into formative and semantic.

§2. Shaping particles

There are very few form-forming particles.
These are particles: let, let, let, yes, come on. They serve to form the conditional and imperative moods.

Not if it rained, we We'd spend the whole day outside.

Particle would serves as an indicator of the conditional mood of the verb. This is a verb form component. The particle is included in the predicate along with the verb form. This means that formative particles will be included in the members of sentences.

Let's go out of town!

Particle Let's - indicator of the imperative mood. Let's go- this is an incentive to joint action. Here this is the predicate of a definite-personal sentence.

This means that formative particles are particles involved in the formation of the conditional and imperative moods of the verb. In a sentence, they appear together with the verb, even if they do not stand next to each other, and are one member of the sentence (separate particles cannot be members of the sentence).

§3. Meaning particles. Places by value

The bulk of Russian particles are semantic particles. Since they can express a wide range of meanings, it is important to know into which categories they are divided by meaning.

Digits by value:

1. Negative: not, neither, not at all, far from, not at all
2. Interrogative: really, really, whether (l)
3. Demonstratives: this, over there, here, in (colloquial)
4. Clarifying: exactly, just, directly, exactly, exactly
5. Restrictive-excretory : only, only, exclusively, almost, solely
6. Exclamation marks: what the, well and how
7. Reinforcing: after all, even, really, after all, not, well, yet, and, yes, but
8. Doubts: hardly, hardly, hardly
   

Do not confuse:

1) Particles and, ah, yes- homonymous to coordinating conjunctions.
AND do not say! AND do not ask! AND do not wait! (Here And- reinforcing particle)
Yes do not say! Yes do not ask! Yes don't wait for him, he won't come! (yes - reinforcing particle)
A, come what may! ( A- reinforcing particle)

2) Particle -That homonymous with the suffix -to in indefinite pronouns: someone, some and so on.
He -That knows what he's saying! We- That we know... Ivan -That knows... (here -That- particle)

3) Particle How homonymous with the pronoun How.
How breathes well after a thunderstorm!, How it's horrible!, How I feel bad! (Here How- exclamation particle)
How is the word written? (interrogative pronoun)
I don't know, How this word is written. (relative pronoun)

Attention:

Some particles may belong not to one, but to different categories, for example: whether or not etc. Compare:
In the house neither souls (= no one, negative) ≠ There were no souls in the room neither souls (amplification)
Tell me you called whether anyone? (interrogative) ≠ Will come in whether is he today? Will have time whether? (doubt)

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. Is it correct to consider particles as an independent part of speech?

2. Is the part of speech variable?

3. Can particles be part of sentences?

4. What particles can be included in the members of a sentence?

   • Semantic
   • Form-building

5. What particles help form the imperative and conditional moods?

   • Semantic
   • Form-building

6. Particles are formative or semantic Not And neither?

   • Semantic
   • Formative

7. The formative or semantic particles are: if only, let, let, yes, come on -?

   • Semantic
   • Formative

Particle- this is an unchangeable auxiliary part of speech that gives, clarifies or specifies various semantic (gradual, evaluative, optative, etc.), modal, emotional and expressive meanings of words, parts of a sentence or sentences and participates in the formation of individual morphological categories, and also expresses attitude speaker to reality or what is being communicated. For example: I sameI will give my life for you; The enemy is near Notyou'll be patient etc. Wed: [Chatsky] For what same way secret? – [Molchalin] In my summer Not must dare / Have your own judgment. – [ Chatsky] For mercy, we are with you Not guys / Why same other people's opinions only holy? (A. Griboyedov); Only The Black Sea is noisy... (A. Pushkin); Here the master will come - the master will judge us (N. Nekrasov); Here's the mill! She really collapsed (A. Pushkin); Here youth!.. read!.. and then grab it! (A. Griboyedov), etc.

By structure particles may be primitive(isn’t it, it’s only) And derivatives (it was just everything etc.). In its turn, derivatives particles are divided according to the nature of their relationship with those parts of speech from which they originated:

• – adverbial (simply, directly, precisely);
• – pronominal (all);
• – verbal (it was, it happened, give);
• – excretory particles correlated with unions(What thethe beauty of these tales; I, however,I won't follow you);
• – particles similar in meaning to prepositions (sort of).

From the point of view of the performed functions particles are:

• A) formative(give, come, let, let, let (Let it thunder stronger storm! (M. Gorky)) and word-forming(derivative. then, or etc. (someone, anyone and so on.));
• b) semantic, emotionally expressive And modal.

TO semantic include the following particles:

• – index fingers (here, there, this);
• – definitive and clarifying (exactly, just, exactly, almost);
• – excretory-restrictive (. only);
• – amplifiers ( well, directly, after all, simply);

TO emotionally expressive(they are pronounced with force, pressure) include particles what the, that, where is it, what is there, well, well And etc.

TO modal, expressing subjective attitude the speaker is assigned to the communicated particle:

• – affirmative (Yes of course);
• – negative (neither, no, not, by no means, of course);
• – interrogative (oh, really, really);
• – comparative (exactly, as if, as if);
• - pointing to someone else's speech (de, they say – I mean, I don't know and so on.).

In the texts of works of art, particles express

various shades of meaning words, phrases and sentences:

Wed: I same told you! Said same I'll tell you! Or me whether you Not talked about this?! Isn't it I tell you Not talked about this?! Knew whether you about it? etc. – What the aces in Moscow live and die! (A. Griboyedov). I whether to you Not my own, I whether to you Not close, / In memory of the village I isn't it do I value it? (S. Yesenin).

In the Russian language there are two particles that express the meaning denial - not And neither. In connection with the particle Not particle neither receives intensifying meaning: Neitherdrops NotI'm afraid; Neithertrait NotI know. Area of ​​use of the particle Not in the Russian language is very wide, especially since in it “two homonyms merged, previously phonetically different (Not And n)". Complexity of the grammatical nature of the particle Not expressed in fluctuations in its use. It is characterized by prefix agglutination (indecent, independent etc.) and the function of a negative particle.

Particle neither expresses negation or in the very structure of an unextended sentence (not a soul; not a sound; not from the place), or when spreading a negative sentence, combining the meaning denial with meaning gain (We haven't heard eithersound) or with the meaning of a union transfers (For you there is no letter or parcel,neither telegrams). In a particle neither there is an element of meaning of complete absence or categorical negation. Particle neither strengthens denial and participates in the formation of “hidden” meanings in the structure of counter-oppositions. Qualitative enhancement of the particle attribute neither expresses independently. Wed:

Neither bad, nor good, nor average.

They are all in their places,

Where there are neither the first nor the last...

They all slept there.

(A. Akhmatova)

// There are neither bad, nor good, nor average, nor the first, norlatest... // = "no" – the lowest degree of the characteristic.

Terminology problems

In modern Russian studies there is an opinion that particles are not a special part of speech, but a special function words. As an argument, the linguistic fact is given that a variable word can also be a particle.

Particles unite with prepositions And unions syntactic nature of meaning: they do not express concepts they are assigned those semantic increments that a statement receives when a particle is introduced into it. For example, in sentences In the morning I drink only coffee with milk And In the morning I drink coffee with milk it is reported that coffee with milk is the only drink which (I) drink in the morning. Since the given sentences differ in composition only by the word only, we can say that the indicated restrictive-exclusive meaning is introduced by the particle and is its meaning. If in offer Rain is coming introduce a particle even if, the content of its syntactic modality will change: instead of the designated real fact the proposal will call desirable(optional) fact. As a result even if turns out to be a particle with the value of desirability.

Particles are part of one or another member of a sentence if these particles are formative. Would say tell me about this(form subjunctive inclinations); Hallowed be it your name(form imperative inclinations). Some modal particles are also included in the members of the sentence, for example the particle not: He told me did not believe.

Various parts of speech can become particles. For example: In the audience only girls or stood in the room one table(one/one = "just; nothing/nobody else"); On the street one pampering,It grows here one nettle - formation of particles from numerals. Another example - Think: giveI'll tell you, maybe he'll believe you – shows education verbal particles. Or compare: Allthe space was occupied by roses, He did Alldepending on him – cases of use of pronouns, according to: And he everything is silent and silent -everything - amplifier particle.

Particles are widely used in sentences, communicative purpose which is expression of the degree of magnitude of a characteristic. For example, low the degree of the attribute is conveyed by an intensifying particle Just meaning "completely": Our affairs are very badus there's just nothing to live with(A. Ostrovsky) // there's just nothing to live with = We have absolutely nothing to live with.

Limiting particle only appears in the statement in the first and second meanings of the particle only:

• 1) "not more than so much, nothing else but" - It only costs (= "only; just" five rubles // It's only worth(just)five rubles, that's only(= "only") Start // This just the beginningand to be continued;
• 2) "only, exclusively" – Only(= "only") in the villageResting // I only relax in the village, nowhere else, Only(= "only") Youyou feel sorry for me // Only you feel sorry for me, no one else. Wed: union only carries the meaning "as soon as": Just enteredshe comes towards him // How just walked inshe meets him.

High the degree of manifestation of a characteristic is expressed by an intensifying particle only(or in combination "not + verb") in preposition in relation to the pronoun and adverb in negative sentences, used to enhance the idea of large quantities, volume, girth, etc. For example: Who hasn't beenin Gorky's house, who didn't writeto him, I wasn't interested in any kind of businessHe!(P. Pavlenko) // Who doesn't... + verb = "very many (almost all)"; just what kind (affairs) Not + verb= "very many (almost all)".

With a numeral, with a word Total or without it, particle only used in the sense of “no more than, just”: He was raging [pestilence] just three hoursbut killed two hundred and forty breeders and an uncountable offspring(I. Ilf, E. Petrov). With the word more or without it particle only indicates the limitation of an action or phenomenon to initial, preliminary, etc. moment in the meaning of “yet, for now”: It's just(= "yet") Start , expresses meaning reinforcements - Everyone has been at work for a long time, and he only(= "yet") Dressing, Only(= "yet") seven weekshow he took over the regiment(L. Tolstoy). Wed: union only combined with words how, just, barely or without them, attaches a temporary or conditional subordinate clause in the meaning “at that moment, as, now, as”: Just sayI will come // As soon as you say so, I will come. Like an opposing union only used in the sense of “however, but, on condition”: I agree to go just not now //I agree to go however not now.

Particle even used to highlight and strengthen the word to which it refers: Evenhe will come; Here Pasha Emilievich, who had a supernatural sense, realized WhatNow hismaybe they will beat even with your feet(I. Ilf, E. Petrov).

In modern Russian language the lexeme Just functions as particle, adverb, predicative(short form of adjective simple), conjunction And state category word.

As particles token Just functions in the preposition position in the following combinations:

• – simple + adjective(Justclumsy)
• – Just + noun (It was just a boyfrom the next street, this just a mockery - preposition in relation to the predicate expressed by a noun);
• – Just + verb (He he just doesn't lookon me, me I just want tohome – in an impersonal sentence);
• – simple + state category word (You just can'tbelieve here just deep).

In modern Russian language adverb– one of the most productive and semantically meaningful grammatical categories. On its periphery, transitional types of words are observed, close to particles, conjunctions and prepositions. As an adverb lexeme Just occurs predominantly in postposition in relation to the predicate, expressed by conjugated and inconjugated forms of the verb: He said Just; Write Justand clear.

lexeme Just belong to the class predicates (short adjectives) based on the expression quality condition and syntactic role predicate. The solution to the problem is quite Just ,Everything was Just ,war / / Just - short form of adjective simple as a function of part of a compound nominal predicate: Solution (was) Just,The state of affairs was extreme Just ,All Justand clear.

As union token Just acts to connect homogeneous members of a sentence and in complex sentences: He didn't hit, but Justlowered his fist onto the table; ...my haste was not explained by the fact that I was happy to be free from classes, JustI tried to do as quickly as possible what the teacher told me(F. Iskander).

The element is quite expressive Just in the version of the gradational union not only but. Such expressiveness is created as a result of inherited from the name of the adjective simple, adverbs Just and particles Just meanings. The only sign of seme is the seme “not complex” (archiseme “measure, degree”). In all sentences as part of the gradational conjunction the element Just conveys the meaning: 1) “not containing many parts”; 2) “easier – more difficult”; “without intention - with purpose”; “ordinary – extraordinary, standing out from others.” The first meaning is present in coordinating sentences with gradational conjunctions.

Element Just as part of a gradational conjunction marks an equal component denoting a simple action and with its lexical meaning indicates on the fact that the value of the first equal component is simple compared to the value of the second equal component: He not easynoticed errors but alsotried to fix them. The first equal component is notice – contains the seme “to see, discover”, the second component – try to fix – In other words, “to try to eliminate shortcomings in something.” The second component evokes in the consciousness of the speaker and listener what is named by the first: one action, designated by the predicate notice is a prerequisite for another - try to fix it. Such a relationship between two equal components of a syntactic structure creates material gradation, since one of the equal components actually includes in its content another equal component. Element Just as part of the union emphasizes the importance material gradation.

Particle even from an implementation point of view gradual semantics and grading of a sentence-statement is a productive enhancer and is freely used in combination with all syntactic elements of a sentence as predicative, so and non-predicative plan. Particle even combines freely with words of all significant parts of speech in all their forms.

Amplifiers Components and, but, well both independently and in combination with other graders (cf. and even, but even, well, even; and simple, but simple, well simple; and more, by (a) more, well (a) more etc.), highlighting the word with which they are used, often require placing this word at the beginning of the syntagma: And a poor man can be happy!(A. Chekhov).

Particle more in different contexts expresses a number of meanings, for example in the text by I. Ilf and E. Petrov: The janitor stood at the workshop three more minutes,filling with the most poisonous feelings... – additional value; Victor Mikhailovich for a long timeswaggered; Never beforeBartholomew Korobeinikov was not so vilely deceived– in combination with the pronoun particle more used to emphasize some feature. When used after pronouns and adverbs more acts as a particle to enhance expressiveness: Which one elsea gift for him! In colloquial speech what else is used in the meaning “amazing, wonderful, exceptional”, and the combination nothing yet - meaning "to some extent satisfactory": This nothing yet!He's been doing this for years and have never been caught yet, Where more with a previous union and, yes acts in the sense of “in addition, in addition, in addition, in addition.” Particle more expresses the presence of sufficient time, sufficient conditions for some action:

In the center such subtropics long gone, but on the periphery, in the localities, they still meet; Madame Kuznetsova a long time yet she would talk about flour, about the high cost, and about how she found Claudia Ivanovna lying by the tiled stove...

Combination and also... used in the sense of reproach, irony, condemnation ( And also a doctor!); to strengthen the expression of a greater degree:

And Ostap Bender told Ippolit Matveyevich a story, the amazing beginning of which excited the entire secular Petersburg, and the even more amazing end was lost and went completely unnoticed by anyone in recent years.

Wed: Little did I know that this would be the case? ABOUT, how else did you know! Knew it very well(N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What elseTeddy bear? NoneBears Don't know(M. Gorky) – reinforcing particle more used with adverb How(or pronoun what) to emphasize a sign, fact - Knew it very well; I didn’t know any Mishka. Like a limiting particle more used to clarify, emphasize any attribute or fact: Here, you see where still at the low pointrows of mown hay lie, here is the bridge(L. Tolstoy).

Functioning of particles in text

Particle more is very productive and is used in constructions with the following meanings:

• 1) remembering, referring to the known: But you don’t know Lizaveta, the merchant ? She came down here. More I mended your shirt(F. Dostoevsky);
• 2) concerns: ...He will come, yes, perhaps more will be rude(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin);
• 3) inconsistencies (usually with complicated elements a, i): I am a peasant, but I won’t do this. And alsonobleman! (N. Gogol); Where did they stop? Alsoclever man...(N. Gogol);
• 4) condemnation, dissatisfaction, doubt: That brute is still talking! (V. Garshin); Where did you get it from?? My sister is healthy. - Bet some more!..(A. Ostrovsky);
• 5) assumptions;
• 6) accents: More, as if on purpose, with the newest pieces of paper(N. Gogol);
• 7) reinforcement (with pronominal words how, which)". And how else draws beautifully...; What elseclever...

Particle All can bring a variety of meanings and shades to a sentence. This is an adverbial particle used in constructions with the meaning long-term, permanent And predominant feature : Do you know why he is like this? Allsad, Allsilent, you know? (I. Turgenev). Token All in this sentence it is a particle, it introduces the semantic meaning of a long-term and constant sign, it emphasizes the fact that someone for a long time not happy, sad, silent etc. The proposal is two-part; particle All is part of the nominal predicate (still not so cheerful) and as part of the verbal predicate (everything is silent) is located immediately before the significant word (funny- adjective, is silent- verb). The particle introduces into the sentence, in addition to its semantic meaning, a stylistic shade of colloquialism. Likewise: Father will even be happy; he keeps pushing me to serve, and I I keep making excuses ill health(F. Dostoevsky).

A touch of colloquialism gives the statement a complicated that's all. Wed: He lies in his hole day and day, doesn’t get enough sleep at night, doesn’t finish a morsel, and still thinks: "It seems like I'm alive?.."(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin) – particle All introduces into the sentence the meaning of constant action and the predominance of the person’s thought process, and the morph - That, adjacent to the particle, highlights, emphasizes, accentuates the semantic meaning of the predicate verb thinks.

Complex particle so and in modern Russian it functions in verbal sentences with the following meanings:

• 1) intensively And full emerging predicative sign (Rain it's pouring like that; Sun it's burning so hot);
• 2) signs like completion or identifying previous state (I'll leave, – I'll never know truth; Bed it was still untidy);
• 3) confident and defiant denial (They were so scared of you!).

A. A. Shakhmatov saw in combination so and“an adverb meaning a relationship, i.e. one or another degree of manifestation of a characteristic” and, accordingly, “a complementary circumstance.” In his opinion, construction " so and + verb in the form present, past,(less often) future time" in modern Russian colloquial speech are extremely common. For example: Boards underneath they bend and crack(I. Turgenev) – present tense verb; There was such an air of misfortune from his figure(L. Tolstoy) – past tense; Me it started shaking laughing(A. Chekhov) – past tense.

Particle So may be complicated by an element Here, and then the syntactic construction conveys the meaning of direct and unhindered identification of the predicative feature:

The whole lower back hurts, and the leg that is above the bone, so it aches(N. Gogol); So All and hide it in a shop when you see him (N. Gogol); “How I love your Pokrovskoye,” he said, interrupting the conversation. – It would be so all life and sat here on the terrace (L. Tolstoy).

Combination so and also used in η constructions with the meaning completion or identifying a pre-existing condition. Predicative feature expressed by the combination so and characterized as the result or natural completion of another feature that prepared it, independent and dissimilar to the final one ( I cried all evening so andfell asleep), close and similar to it ( been sick for a long time that's how he died), or the same sign emanating from the past, which lasted for some time and naturally ended on its own ( never arrivedto visit). The meaning of the syntactic parts with so and is revealed as a result of comparison, cf. I fell asleep, I died, I never came and so on.: ...he realized that he was lost, that there was no return, that the end had come, completely the end, and doubt it's not allowed, it will remain that waydoubt(L. Tolstoy).

The meaning "very, to a large extent" is conveyed intensifying particle Where in colloquial speech: WhereYou cold and dry!(A. Pushkin). In combination with an adjective (or comparative adverb) particle Where means “significantly, incomparably, much” (MAC) and is characteristic of colloquial speech: Much more beautiful, Much cheaper,Work in progress much more friendly;...our oil pipeline – much more worthyobject for literature than all the delights primitivetaiga(V. Azhaev).

With a particle Where are being formed infinitives sentences with the meaning of confident denial of the possibility of performing an action - the dative subject is usually used as part of the sentence (as a rule, the particle begins the sentence): WhereI, a catechumen, have to go to big bars...(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Usually this particle is complicated by reinforcing elements already, there, here, same:

Well, where to should she marry, should she marry? Here I am getting married, so I am getting married (Gogol); Oh, no, master... don't transfer me to the hospital, don't touch me. I will only take more flour there. Where can I be treated!.. (I. Turgenev).

Sentences with particles Where, conveying the meaning of denying the possibility of performing this or that action, can only consist of a particle and the following dative subject: Where should he go! Where are you going?! Where are you going?

Particle same way has the meaning of mocking disapproval, irony, assertion of the inconsistency of a characteristic with the internal capabilities and qualities of its bearer. The particle can be used both at the beginning and at the end of a syntactic construction - a one-part, nominal or verbal sentence: Every creature same wayclimbs to love! (I. Goncharov); Same way,one of the funny ones...(A. Griboyedov).

There are widespread sentences in which we use complicated enhancement particle Well -Well; well... well; well yes and; well, yes and... well; well; well then :

Well, ball! Well, Famusov! (A. Griboyedov); Well your build, brother (A. Rybakov); Well was and a pig is just a lion! (K. Paustovsky); Well, really house! I got to the place! (A. Ostrovsky); Well, really and I'm glad same I saw you! (I. Turgenev); Well stupid same this girl... is kind, but... stupid - unbearable! (M. Gorky).

The meaning of the gradual assessment conveyed by these linguistic units is supported by the lexical meaning of the words that make up the sentence. A negative or positive assessment is revealed directly from the sentence itself, the modal meaning of which can be defined as an accentuated assessment in combination with surprise caused by a certain quality or nature of a feature, process, object or phenomenon.

Function gain particle transmits really in constructions where the predicative unit includes a word with a qualitatively characterizing meaning - a verb or name denoting a characteristic that manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent, an adverb of measure and degree or a pronominal such as:

And here we are fighting, fighting with money... How needed, how needed!(A. Ostrovsky); I don’t understand how you can hang out with such a fool. So stupid Here really true skank! (L. Tolstoy); And the dowry: a stone house in the Moscow part, about two buildings, so profitable that is true pleasure (N. Gogol).

Complicated particle – already; already and... same; already... then; well; really– often used in one-part nominal sentences, less often in verbal or two-part sentences. Such usages are characteristic primarily of colloquial and artistic speech:

Already bear same was (I. Gorbunov); Already horse! Kabardian catch-brand (L. Tolstoy); Before you can blink your eye, it will all be over. And I'm a grandmother, a midwife! (K. Fedin); Already didn't get angry whether He? (A. Ostrovsky); What does it mean? Already not suitors whether? (N. Gogol).

Accentological particle Yes quite productive from the point of view of use, including in sentences with gradual semantics. A characteristic feature of the particle is the fact that Yes in sentences with meaning accentuated opposition is located between opposed components, which can be any members of the sentence, but with the obligatory condition that the predicate, the main member of the sentence or the entire predicative basis is included in this group. Wed: Yes you dodon't you understand? – With him - Yesdon't agree? (I. Turgenev); Yes you areGuess you don’t know how to work! – Sapper, Yescan not!(Yu. Nagibin) - the discrepancy between the predicative feature and its carrier (object) is emphasized.

From the point of view of pronunciation, such constructions are distinguished by a longer pause between the compared words. The pause is intensified and emphasized in the case when the particle is followed by so that dividing the sentence structure into two parts: With his abilities Yesnot to study! // With his abilities yes sonot to study; At the forester's yes sothere was no money! (A. Chekhov).

Among the sentences of accented opposition, the following meanings are distinguished: concession restriction(N. Yu. Shvedova) and "affective expression"(A. A. Shakhmatov).

In offers concession restriction(with an unknown subject, object or circumstance) must include adverbs or pronouns something, anyone, somewhere, somewhere, for some reason:

And always anything yes stuck to his uniform ... (N. Gogol); Yes to anyone to be killed or wounded is true (L. Tolstoy); In mechanics and me something yes I’m standing (A. Krylov).

Such sentences convey the meaning of such an accented feature, which is always combined with the meaning of confidence in its presence: “at least something (someone, something, etc.), but definitely...” – will stick; will be killed or wounded; has a price etc.

Offers affective expression are dialogue lines that emphasize the message (not always the answer) with an emotional connotation of meaning - irritation, bewilderment, confidence, evaluation, etc. In such statements, the particle always begins the remark, and the accentuation of the sentence is enhanced by complicating the construction with the particle same, following the logically selected word.

Wed. in the works of L. Tolstoy:

• “Natasha, lie down in the middle,” said Sonya.
• “No, I’m here,” Natasha said. . - Yes, go to bed“,” she added with annoyance.
• (War and peace)

Vasily Lenidych I told you, those shoes. I can't wear these! Grigory. Yes and those they stand there.

Vasily Leonidych. But where is it?

Grigory. Yes there same.

Vasily Leonidych. You're lying!

Grigory. Yes you'll see.

(Fruits of Enlightenment)

It is obvious that the presence of particles in a sentence-statement presupposes both the selection of one of the words and a broad plan of messages, and an attempt to remove particles narrows, impoverishes and even distorts the content of the statement. The role of the particle lies not only and not even so much in allocation, how many in instructions on broader shades of meaning meanings. These shades are usually worn measuring character.

• Wed: Starodumova E. A. Russian particles (written monologue speech): monograph. Vladivostok, 1996; Shibanova A. E. Semantic-functional characteristics of the particle even// Russian language at school. 1974. No. 1. P. 33-35; Nagorny I. A. Expression of predicativity in sentences with modal-persusive particles: abstract, dissertation.... Dr. Philol. Sci. M., 1999.
• Shakhmatov L. A. Syntax of the Russian language. (1941). P. 404.
• See additional: Kolesnikova S. M. The particle “here” in a Russian sentence: grammatical transformation, desemantization and gradual function // Russian language at school. 2013. No. 6. pp. 92–97.

Among the particles should be distinguished. There are quite numerous examples of them in the Russian language. The difficulty is that they can perform several functions, and particles often go into Let's look at how these particles are represented in the Russian language, examples will help with this.

Concept

What is a particle? This is a special auxiliary part of speech, which is designed to convey additional semantic or emotional shades both to the entire sentence as a whole and to a specific word. They also have another important function: they participate in the formation of word forms.

Let's look at two sentences that use particles. Examples are as follows:

• Only she can help me do this hard work.
• Let them finish this task quickly and move on to the next one.

If in the first sentence the particle only strengthens the pronoun she, gives the word the meaning of isolation, exclusivity, then in the second particle let performs a completely different function - it participates in the formation of the imperative mood: let them finish, let them move on.

Syntactic role

Just like other function words (prepositions and conjunctions), particles do not carry a syntactic load; it is wrong to single them out as a part of a sentence. The only exception is their formative role. In this case, the particle is indicated with the member of the sentence to which it adjoins.

• Wasn't it you and me we met on the bus yesterday? (The addition not with you includes the particle Not.)
• Let the lights sparkle brighter. (The predicate in the imperative mood let them sparkle includes the particle let him.)

Let's compare with sentences where there are no examples:

• Should you be on class duty today? (Interrogative particle isn't it does not carry any syntactic load.)
• How beautiful the sea is at dawn! (Exclamation particle how come is not part of the sentence.)

Main functions

Let's figure out what forms this part of speech (particle) is used to form. Examples will help with this.

1. The imperative mood of the verb. These are the particles: let (let), come on, yeah. (Let's start your duties as soon as possible . Yes the celebration will begin! )
2. Conditional mood of the verb. The particle used here is would (b). (If would just return everything back. Came b you came to me, you got it done would much faster.)
3. Particles are also used to form the degree of comparison of an adjective or adverb. Examples: taller, less deep, most beautiful; more interesting, less broad.
4. A number of linguists identify some (we will give examples of them in this paragraph) as participating in the formation of indefinite pronouns: either, either, something(someone, somewhere, anyone, some). However, classical science still identifies them as suffixes and prefixes (some-).

Transmitted values

Much more diverse Examples will help prove that with the help of these function words you can convey various emotional and semantic shades.

There are several groups of such particles:

1. Interrogative. Really, really, really) indicate a question. ( Really Is it so difficult to complete a simple task? Isn't it Did I say I'll come after lunch? You whether stood behind that tree?)
2. Exclamation marks. How, what the talk about admiration or indignation. ( How It's great to come home after a day of work! What the beautiful morning! What the disobedient child! How You can make such a terrible soup!)
3. Index marks. Here, there are used when it is necessary to attract the listener's attention to a specific subject. ( Here this house. It is over a thousand years old. There, look, a wedge of cranes.)
4. Amplifiers: even, after all, after all, then. They are used to emotionally enhance a specific word. ( Even a small child knows that he needs to wash his hands after going outside. After all I warned you that you could make a mistake here. Still you are an incorrigible romantic. Anya same I went into the forest through the thicket. To me -That Don’t you know how hard it is to study and work!)
5. Clarifying: exactly, exactly, exactly- used to designate specific objects and phenomena. (It was exactly that dress that was hanging in the window just yesterday. Exactly This is what I'm trying to convey to you. Just Pavel should know this.)
6. Conveying doubt: hardly, hardly.(Hardly there will be someone who can help us. Hardly he will cope with such a difficult test.)
7. Negative particles: no, neither. We will look at examples of their use in more detail below. Here we will only say that they convey negation in different ways.

Denial with no and no

It is the negative particles that cause the most difficulties. The difficulty lies in the fact that they are used in different speech situations. Yes, particle Not used when it is necessary to convey the negation of a sentence as a whole. ( Not talk to me in that tone! I Not Can Not go to this meeting . )

Another thing is the particle neither. It is designed to strengthen the already existing denial. In other words, it is always used in conjunction with Not, giving it additional meaning. By the way, instead of a particle Not there may be an equivalent word no. (In heaven there is no neither clouds, neither clouds. I will not go neither to the store, neither to visit - I want to stay at home.) Word No, which is a predicate, can be omitted, it can be easily restored from the context. (In the house neither souls. Wed: Not in the house neither souls.)

Particle neither can also take on an intensifying meaning. (Where neither I’ll look - everywhere they rejoice at the first sun.) In such cases, the function word is used in subordinate clauses along with for example, who, what, where, where.

Spelling no and no

When to write Not, and when neither? The answer is simple: try to “eliminate” the controversial particle from the sentence. If the meaning does not change, you need to use neither, otherwise - Not. ( Whichever book I neither I read, everywhere I meet characters who are similar to my loved ones.) If you remove the sentences, it will remain the same, it will not suffer grammatically.

(Who Not I was preparing for exams and passed them very poorly.) If you remove the particle, the meaning of the sentence will change to the opposite. Must be consumed Not.

It should also be remembered that in exclamatory sentences, together with the particle only always written Not.(Where is he? Not I looked for the loss - everything is useless!)