The French Republic is one of the most economically and politically developed countries in the world. The modern administrative-territorial structure of France was formed over the course of many centuries, and the process included wars with neighbors, feudal wars within the country, as well as a long period of colonial wars on other continents. The Great French Revolution of 1789-1799 also played an important role in the history of the country and the entire European continent. The active labor movement that existed since the beginning of the nineteenth century was also important for the country.
Middle Ages in France
The form of the administrative-territorial structure of the medieval Frankish state was a typical feudal model with numerous minor rulers. By the end of the 10th century, the royal central authority had no authority whatsoever among two dozen dukes and earls, each of whom strove for maximum independence from the supreme ruler.
In 987, the Capetian dynasty, named after its founder, Hugo Capet, came to power on the territory of the Frankish kingdom. The beginning of the rule of the new dynasty was overshadowed by numerous religious wars within the country, crusades and the so-called Avignon captivity of the Pope, when the Pope was actually held hostage by the French kings.
However, the history of state building in France was replenished in the Middle Ages with such remarkable events as the convening of the States General in 1302. In fact, it was the first French parliament, whose influence on subsequent history can hardly be overestimated, since parliamentarianism was firmly rooted in the French political tradition.
France in modern times
The state and territorial structure of France passed to a new form during the reign of Louis XI (1461-1483). During his reign, the unification of the country was actually completed under the rather strong sole rule of the king, the powers of local feudal rulers were significantly reduced and the formation of the cult of the central ruler began, which played a fatal role in state history and led to the Great Revolution.
In 1589, a lateral branch of the Capetian dynasty was cut short - it was replaced by a new dynasty - the Bourbons, the first representative of which on the French throne was Henry IV. The new king put an end to religious wars between Catholics and Protestants that had raged for decades.
The Edict of Nantes signed by Henry IV in 1598 gave the Protestants quite broad powers, which significantly influenced the form of the territorial structure of France, since now the Protestants could own fortresses and actually formed a state within a state, acquiring military power.
Thirty Years' War
In 1618, France entered the so-called Thirty Years War, which was caused by the intentions of some European states to establish their own hegemony in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.
The result of this long and bloody war was the creation of international relations, which is based on the principle of respect for national sovereignty and the priority of state interests over international ones.
Of course, such a result could not but affect the form of the state-territorial structure of France. At this time, a system began to form in which most of the powers were concentrated in the hands of the central government, while the local elites were actively suppressed.
In 1685, the Edict of Nantes was canceled by Louis XIV, which led to a massive exodus of Protestants to neighboring countries. In general, the period of the reign of Louis XIV was not the most peaceful in the history of the state: France was involved in several major wars, each of which influenced the territorial structure of the country.
France in the 18th century
In 1715, Louis XIV dies, and after him comes Louis XV, whose reign fell on political and financial crises, as well as the Seven Years War, the defeat in which led to a radical change in the form of the administrative-territorial structure of France. As a result of the Paris Peace Treaty, she was forced to cede many of her colonies to Great Britain.
It is worth noting that the largest losses of the state were India and Canada. The country's fleet was destroyed, and for many years France became a third-order power, unable to even claim European domination.
French revolution
In 1789, the Great Revolution began in France, which had a tremendous impact not only on the socio-political system of the country, but also on the historical development of all European states.
The implementation of the revolution led to the elimination of the so-called Old Order, which had existed in the country for almost three hundred years. The main result of the revolution was the abolition of the monarchy in 1792 and the introduction of elected bodies of power, as well as the trial and execution.
Destructive wars
Over the course of ten years, the political and territorial structure of France has changed many times, since, in addition to the actual revolutionary events within the state, the country was drawn into a war with Spain and Great Britain, which were unhappy with the expansion undertaken by the new French government into Holland.
After the end of the revolution and a short period of political stability, Napoleon I Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor. This was followed by a series of military campaigns and a crushing defeat.
Colonial system of France
France, immediately after Spain and Portugal, joined the race of the great geographical discoveries, thus becoming one of the first countries to acquire overseas territories.
In 1535, the French navigator Jacques Cartier entered the mouth, which was the beginning of the history of the French colony of New France, which for a long time occupied a significant part of the continent of North America.
Researchers agree that initially France had significant advantages over Great Britain, which began its overseas expansion seventy years later than France. In addition, France had technological advantages over Spain and Portugal, but its leadership was hampered by internal political instability and continental wars, as well as the revolution of the eighteenth century.
Initially, France focused on the study of the northern territories of the New World, but later began to explore South America, as well as the development of the islands of the West Indies.
Mastering North America
Despite the fact that in the 18th century France lost a significant part of its colonies as a result of a military clash with Great Britain, it did not lose its influence on the North American continent, but even expanded its colonial possessions inland.
Count Frontenac made a huge contribution to the development of the French colonies in North America, with the financial and political support of which the explorer La Salle sailed the Mississippi and declared the river valley a French colony. The emergence of overseas territories significantly influenced the peculiarities of the territorial structure of France, since new institutions and new laws were required to manage the new lands.
Despite the fact that, following the results of the Seven Years War, Canada ceded to England, the central part of the mainland remained with France until it was sold to the United States.
Louisiana Purchase
In 1800, a secret agreement was made between Spain and France to transfer Louisiana to the control of the French Republic, greatly perplexing the United States government.
Immediately after information about a secret agreement between the two colonial powers, the United States began negotiations with France on the sale of New Orleans, but received an unexpected offer - to sell the entire colony of Louisiana. The French proposal was probably connected with the internal problems of the metropolis, which not only did not allow Paris to effectively manage the colonies, but also endangered the French state itself.
As a result of this sale in terms of government and territorial structure, France approached its present state.
French Republic: modernity
Modern France is a transcontinental democratic state with a republican form of government. The territory of the state includes the main part in Western Europe and a number of overseas departments, which remained as a legacy of the colonial empire.
France is a unitary republic of the presidential type, where the head of state has the broadest powers. However, a distinctive feature of the republic is a well-developed system of local self-government, which corresponds to the territorial structure of France.
The smallest unit of territorial structure are communes, of which there are thirty-six thousand in the country. Each such unit is governed by the municipal council, which makes decisions in the interests of its residents: creates the necessary services, disposes of public property, organizes socially important events.
The main administrative divisions are departments, of which there are ninety-six in the European territory of France (and five more overseas departments).
Standing apart are the five overseas communities, New Caledonia, the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, and Clipperton.
Department as a backbone unit
The department in France is the second level of government after the commune, but it is also the most important, since it is at this level that most of the decisions that are fundamentally important for local communities are made.
The body of representation at the department level is the General Council, which is formed on the basis of direct and general elections. Such elections are held in two rounds and according to the majority system, which ensures maximum transparency and democracy. The powers of the General Council are limited to six years.
The development of the territorial form of the structure of France, therefore, is subject to historical logic and is built in accordance with democratic procedures, consecrated by traditions.
France
Form of government
"France is an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic." This is how the Constitution of France established in 1958.The Basic Law established a republican form of government, which has a mixed character, since it exhibits the features of a presidential republic (the head of state is elected without the participation of parliament, the government is appointed by him) and a parliamentary republic (the government is responsible to the lower house of parliament) ...
The main feature of the 1958 constitution is the concentration of political power in the hands of the executive bodies. The concentration of power in the hands of the head of state and government is one of the manifestations of the constitutionally enshrined authoritarian tendency in the French political regime. The president is at the top of the hierarchy of government bodies. Article 5 of the Constitution stipulates for him the obligation to ensure "by his arbitration the normal functioning of state bodies, as well as the continuity of the state." The same article proclaims that the President is "the guarantor of national independence, territorial integrity, compliance with Community agreements and treaties." The President has broad legislative prerogatives. He is endowed with the right to legislative initiative. With regard to parliament, the president has the power to dissolve the lower house of parliament.
The legislative body of the Republic - parliament - plays a relatively small role in the political life of the country. Parliament consists of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Senate. The main function of parliament - passing laws - is severely limited by the constitution. The constitution clearly defines the range of issues on which parliament has the right to legislate. Issues not included in this list are the responsibility of the government. The rights of parliament are also limited in the financial sphere. The constitution sets a deadline for the adoption of financial bills by parliament. Parliament has the right to control the activities of the government.
The French government is the Council of Ministers, according to Art. 20 of the Constitution, “determines and conducts the policy of the nation”. The government consists of the Prime Minister - the head of government, ministers in charge of ministries, and secretaries of state in charge of the units of individual ministries. The government is accountable to the National Assembly. If a resolution of censure is passed by an absolute majority of the National Assembly, the government must resign. The Constitution specifically defines the powers of the Prime Minister. He is entrusted with responsibility for national defense, he must ensure the implementation of laws, carry out rule-making activities.
The Constitutional Council is a special body that monitors the observance of the Constitution. All laws, prior to promulgation by the President, and the regulations of the chambers, prior to their adoption, must be submitted to the Constitutional Council, which gives an opinion on whether they are in conformity with the Constitution. If the Constitutional Council decides that this or that act is contrary to the Constitution, it has the right to cancel it. Also, the powers of the Constitutional Council include monitoring the presidential elections and referendums.
The process of concentration of political power in the hands of executive bodies led to a change in the status of parliament. The government has been given ample opportunities to influence parliament, and in some cases to act “over its head”.
The principles of the formation of the bodies of supreme power and their structure
France
The president
The President of the Republic is elected for a seven-year term by universal and direct suffrage.
The President of the Republic is elected by an absolute majority of the votes cast. If it is not received in the first round of voting, then a second round is held on the second Sunday following it. It is open to only two candidates who, if the more favorable candidates are withdrawn, will end up winning the most votes in the first round.
The voting time is set by the decision of the government. The election of a new president takes place no less than twenty and no later than thirty-five days before the expiration of the term of office of the president in office.
In the event that the post of President of the Republic is vacant for whatever reason or in the presence of obstacles to the President's performance of his duties established by the Constitutional Council, which is requested by the government and which decides by an absolute majority of its members, the functions of the President of the Republic are temporarily performed by the President of the Senate. and if he, in turn, has obstacles, then the government.
In the event of a vacancy and if the obstacle is declared by the Constitutional Council as final, voting for the election of a new president takes place - except in the case of force majeure - not less than twenty and not later than thirty-five days after the opening of the vacancy or the announcement of the final nature of the obstacle.
If, within seven days preceding the deadline for the nomination of candidates, one of the persons who publicly announced their decision to be a candidate at least 30 days before the named date dies or becomes obstructed, the Constitutional Council may decide to postpone the elections.
If before the first round of elections one of the candidates has died or he encountered obstacles, the Constitutional Council decides to postpone the elections.
In the event of death or obstruction of one of the two candidates who are in the most favorable position in the first round before the possible withdrawal of candidates, the Constitutional Council announces a new conduct of all electoral operations; he does the same in the event of death or obstruction of one of the two candidates left to participate in the second round.
Government.
The French government is a collegial body consisting of the prime minister and ministers. In accordance with the constitution, they differ: the Council of Ministers is a meeting of ministers chaired by the President of the Republic, and the Cabinet of Ministers is a meeting of ministers chaired by the Prime Minister. It is the Council of Ministers that exercises the powers that are constitutionally vested in the government.
The government is appointed as follows: The President of the Republic selects a candidate and appoints the Prime Minister. The prime minister selects ministers and presents them to the president, who appoints them. The president has considerable freedom in choosing a candidate for the post of prime minister. This is his personal right. It is only important that, when voting in the National Assembly, no confidence is given to the Prime Minister. In other words, the president must take into account the alignment of party forces in the lower house of parliament.
Parliament.
Parliament consists of two chambers: the lower - the National Assembly and the upper - the Senate. Passive suffrage is granted for election to the National Assembly at the age of 23, and to the Senate at the age of 35. There is an electoral deposit in all elections. At elections of deputies it is 1 thousand francs per candidate, senators - 200 francs. According to the official version, the payment of the deposit is explained by the need to cover the election campaign at least partially and to some extent prevent the nomination of persons nominating themselves not for the purpose of being elected, but for other purposes.
The National Assembly is elected for a term of 5 years by universal, direct suffrage under a mixed majoritarian system: in the first round, to be elected, an absolute majority of the votes cast must be obtained (one deputy is elected from the constituency). If in a week no one received such a majority, then a second round is held in a week. Candidates who have received in the first at least 12.5% of the votes from the number of voters included in the lists are admitted to it. To be elected in the second round, it is enough to obtain a relative majority of votes. In the conditions of the existing multiparty system in the first round, an insignificant part of the seats is replaced. The main struggle unfolds in the second round. The possibility of blocking parties determines the tactics in the second round. The parties, having united, nominate one candidate, as a rule, removing the rest.
The upper house - the Senate - is formed in a different way. According to the founders of the Fifth Republic, the special conditions for the formation of the Senate should create for it a different political "face" than that of the National Assembly. This chamber is formed mainly by three-degree elections. Senators are elected for 9 years by collegiums in each department. The House is renewed by 1/3 every three years, which leads to a decrease in the influence of the electoral corps on the composition of the Senate and does not allow it to drastically change its political course.
Elections for senators are held in the main city of the department and are held in two systems. Proportional applies in departments electing 5 or more members of the House. There are 13 such departments, and the number of senators from them is 69. In the rest of the departments, a two-round majority system is used. The establishment of different systems has a political purpose. Proportional representation from major industrial departments allows non-working-class populations to be represented on the electoral college and then claim Senate seats. The majority system in other departments does not ensure adequate representation of the urban population, which is in the minority there.
A mixed form of government in France (it should be shown why France, according to the 1958 constitution, is called a mixed, or semi-presidential republic, the features of which forms of government and how it is incorporated)
According to the form of government, France is a republic in which elements of a parliamentary republic are combined with elements of a presidential one. Current Constitution - The Constitution of the French Republic entered into force on October 5, 1958. It approved the state system, called the Fifth Republic.
The characteristic features of a semi-presidential (mixed) republic include the following.
The president is directly elected by the population in direct elections. Elections can be held in one or two rounds.
The president is endowed with extensive powers of power: he is the head of state, he has the main prerogatives in the sphere of executive power, he is the supreme commander in chief.
In a Semi-presidential (mixed) republic, the government exists as an independent executive body operating under the general leadership of the president. The government is appointed by the president but needs the confidence of parliament. A vote of no confidence can result in either the resignation of the government or the dissolution of parliament by the president.
The French central executive branch has a "two-headed" structure: it includes the President of the Republic and the Prime Minister. The president, who has his own most important powers, exercised without the countersignature of members of the government (for example, the right to dissolve the National Assembly, the right to declare a state of emergency), should be responsible for the most general directions of the state's activity. The Prime Minister, appointed by the President, is responsible for presenting and implementing other acts of the executive branch. He must implement a policy based on the general orientation of the President. The government is politically accountable to the National Assembly and criminally to both houses of parliament. The president is at the top of the hierarchy of government bodies. Although the formal legal powers of the President remained unchanged throughout the existence of the Fifth Republic, the amendment that established the current procedure for replacing the post of head of state (previously he was elected by the electoral college), strengthened his already dominant position.
2. The bill passed by the US Congress was submitted to the President for approval.
What is the fate of the bill if:
- Did the President veto?
- The President received the bill on Thursday, January 10. Didn't give an answer, and the session of parliament was closed on Monday, January 21?
- The President received the bill on Thursday, January 10, did not give an answer, and the session of parliament was closed on Friday?
1. If the President vetoes a bill (veto power granted by Section 7 of Article 1 of the US Constitution), the bill will return to Congress within 10 days. The veto can be overridden by re-approval in each chamber by a third of the votes of the deputies of each chamber. And then the project will become law even without the signature of the President.
2. If the President received a draft law on Thursday, January 10, and did not give an answer by January 21, therefore the deadline for a response of 10 days has passed, then the draft automatically becomes a law.
3. If the President received the bill on Thursday, did not give an answer, the session of parliament was closed, then he can - veto and return it to Congress for consideration at the next session. Either sign or not respond to it and the bill becomes law.
DEFINITIONS OF THE FORM OF THE STATE AND THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT
text of the French Civil Code
Features of determining the winner in the presidential election in the United States
The form of the state as a way of organizing political power Form of law
France is an indivisible, secular, democratic and social state with a republican form of government. Administratively, France is divided into 22 regions, 96 departments, 36,565 communes. The largest cities are Paris, Lyon (1.3 million), Lille (1.0 million), Nice (0.8 million), Toulouse (0.8 million), Bordeaux (0.7 million).
The Constitution is in force, adopted by referendum in 1958, with amendments in 1962 (on the election of the president), 1992, 1996, 2000 (in connection with the signing of the Maastricht and Nice treaties, respectively) and 1993 (on the issue of immigration).
The form of government since 1958 is a semi-presidential republic: the Constitution clearly defines the principle of the priority of the president, who is not responsible to parliament, but is not also the head of government. Since 1995, the President of France is J. Chirac (re-elected in 2002), a representative of the center-right party "Union for the Unification of the People" (SON), the heir to the Gaullist parties.
In the French political system, the president is a key figure. The President is elected for a 5-year term on a majority basis by direct universal suffrage (all citizens have the right to vote upon reaching the age of 18).
The main function of the president is to monitor the observance of the Constitution, to fulfill the role of the national arbiter, ensuring the regular and proper activity of the executive branch and the continuity of the state. The President is the guarantor of national independence and territorial integrity, France's compliance with its international obligations, he is the supreme commander-in-chief, represents the country in the international arena, appoints the highest civil and military officials. Appoints the prime minister, together with him forms the cabinet and terminates the powers of the latter upon his resignation. The president presides over cabinet meetings and approves decisions.
The president is elected independently of parliament and has the right to dissolve it with the obligatory condition of announcing the date of early elections. The president is deprived of the right to initiate legislation, but he can issue decrees and decrees that have the force of laws, organize referendums on domestic and foreign policy. The President enjoys a suspensive veto over parliamentary decisions. Finally, the Constitution grants the president extraordinary powers in the event of a "serious and immediate threat" to the country's territorial integrity and disruption of the "normal operation of government bodies." In general, the presidential power in France is all-encompassing, it has no definite boundaries.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President for an indefinite term from among the deputies of the party that won the majority in the elections. In 2002, this post was taken by J.-P. Raffarin. The prime minister is accountable to both the president and parliament. He directs the activities of the government and is responsible for it, ensures the implementation of laws, is responsible for the country's defense. If necessary, he conducts meetings of the Supreme National Defense Council instead of the president, as well as, in exceptional cases, meetings of the Council of Ministers (if there is special authority from the president in a specific area). The prime minister, together with the president, participates in the development of the government's economic program, if they belong to different parties (otherwise it is the president's mission).
The Prime Minister enjoys the right to initiate legislation: he and cabinet members can issue by-laws on economic and social issues. Approximately 20% of bills considered by parliament are developed by the government, and the overwhelming majority of them (4/5 or more) are adopted.
The French Parliament consists of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Senate. The deputies of the National Assembly are elected on a majority basis by direct, universal, equal and secret ballot for a 5-year term. Since 1986, the number of deputies in the National Assembly has been 577 (previously 491). 1 deputy mandate falls on 100 thousand voters. Parties whose candidates have overcome the 5% threshold in all 96 departments enter parliament. Members of parliament do not have the right to hold office in the structures of the executive branch. A normal annual parliamentary session lasts at least 120 days. It is possible to convene an extraordinary session at the request of the Prime Minister or the majority of the members of the National Assembly to discuss issues of special state importance; its opening and closing is carried out by a special decree of the President of the country. In the 2002 parliamentary elections, the 12th Legislature of the National Assembly was elected with the following composition: SON 355 seats, French Socialist Party (FSP) 140, Union for the Defense of Democracy (FDD) 29, PCF 21, Radical Party 7, Greens 3, others 22 ...
President of the National Assembly - R. Forney (SON). The chairman, representing the parliamentary majority, is elected for the term of the legislature. Its main task is to ensure the normal functioning of the lower chamber. 6 of his deputies are the heads of the leading parliamentary parties. The agenda of parliamentary sessions is determined by the government, which thereby controls the current activities of the National Assembly.
The sphere of legislative activity of the National Assembly is fixed in the Constitution and is limited to 12 areas (including ensuring civil rights and freedoms of citizens; basic issues of civil and criminal law; national defense; foreign policy; legal regulation property relations; nationalization and privatization, taxation and emission of money and, of course, budget approval). Consideration and approval of the budget is the main ability of the parliament to control the activities of the government; moreover, deputies are prohibited from submitting proposals leading to an increase in the expenditure side of the budget. Lawmaking is carried out within the framework of 6 standing committees (the number established by the Constitution). They include 60-120 deputies; they are invariably chaired by representatives of pro-government parties.
The National Assembly is vested with the right to seek the resignation of the government. The procedure is as follows: when a government program is rejected as a whole or a separate bill, the government raises the question of confidence; in response, the lower house is empowered to pass a special censure resolution. With the support of her at least 50% of the deputies, the cabinet is obliged to resign. However, the President has the right, upon accepting the resignation of the Prime Minister, to immediately reappoint him to this post. Or, on the contrary, to remove the prime minister, despite the support of the majority of parliamentarians.
The upper house of parliament - the Senate (317 members) is elected by a two-stage vote and is renewed by a third every 3 years. The structure of the Senate is identical to that of the National Assembly. The Senate, unlike the lower house, cannot terminate the activities of the government; the Senate has the right of a suspensive veto in relation to laws passed by the National Assembly. The composition of the Senate as of May 2003: SON 83 mandates, FSP 68, Union of Centrists 37, Liberal Democrats 35, Union of Democrats for Socialism and Europe 16, PCF 16, other 66 mandates.
On the basis of the 1958 Constitution, a quasi-judicial body, the Constitutional Council, was created in France. It reviews acts issued by the legislative and executive branches of government for consistency with the Constitution. The Council has 9 members. The President of the country, the heads of the National Assembly and the Senate (3 members each) have the right to nominate them. The appointment is for a nine-year term and cannot be repeated. The President of the Council is appointed by the President of France from among the members of the Council.
Since 1982, local executive power has been elected (before that it was exercised by prefects appointed by the prime minister). At the departmental level, the elected bodies are general councils, at the regional level - regional councils.
A democratic and multi-party system has developed in France. There are about 25 parties in operation; 16 of them took part in the 2002 elections. However, only 3-4 parties have a real impact on political life. These are, first of all, the center-right Association in Support of the Republic (OPR), which in 2002 was transformed into the SON, and the center-left - FSP. In the end. 1980s the far-right National Front (NF) entered the ranks of the main parties. In the 1990s. the strengthening of tripartism was observed, associated mainly with the growth of the electoral success of the NF against the background of the stabilization of the right center and the weakening of the socialists.
The ODA, which emerged in 1976 as the successor to the YUDR, in foreign policy continued the Gaullist tradition of the "special path" of France - a great power and international mediator. In the 1990s. with the complication of relations between industrial and, with the liquidation of the Soviet bloc, the need for French mediation was sharply reduced; The rudiments of Gaullism remained in the form of France's “special approach” to practically all problems of world politics and European construction. In the economic sphere, the ODA, in contrast to the center-right parties of other industrialized countries, did not move to neoliberalism. The position of the ODA on major economic issues (the role of the state in the economy, attitudes towards business, the fight against unemployment) before the presidential and parliamentary elections in 2002 resembled the views of European Social Democrats. From the beginning. 1980s in the presidential and parliamentary elections, the ODA has consistently gained 20-22% of the vote. In the first round of the 2002 presidential elections, the candidate from the OPR J. Chirac received 19.7%, overtaking the leader of the NF J.-M. Le Pen by only 2%.
In the face of the threat of victory, the NF OPR has set the task of rallying the center-right forces. The movement Unification in support of the president created around it became an important factor in the victory of the center-right in the elections (in the second round, Chirac received 81.96%). Subsequently, the movement was transformed into the SON, the leader of which was the well-known OPR figure Alain Juppe. The economic program of the SON, which still does not openly proclaim the principles of neoliberalism, provides for a decrease in the functions of the state and an increase in business support. In the political sphere, the SON sets itself the task of preserving and maintaining the role of a great power, the leader of European politics (this was manifested in the position of France during the war in 2003).
The second main party in France, the FSP, formed in 1971 on the basis of the SFIO, sees its task in the gradual transformation of society in the direction of socialism while maintaining a market economy. In the 2002 presidential elections, the FSP was defeated, its candidate, Prime Minister L. Jospin, with only 16.2% of the vote, did not qualify for the second round. The defeat of 2002 continued the failures of the socialists, which began in the middle. 1980s and caused by their sharp shift to the right. In 1972, the FSP, which was in deep opposition, put forward the slogan "break with capitalism" through large-scale nationalization, introduction of directive planning, "fair distribution" of income through radical reforms, etc. With this program, the FSP and its leader F. Mitterrand won a landslide victory in the presidential and parliamentary elections in 1981. However, a significant deterioration in the economic situation caused by the implementation of measures to "break with capitalism" forced the FSP to turn to practice, and then to theories from the arsenal of the right ... In the next program of the socialists (1991), society was no longer offered a "non-capitalist way of development", but just a different model of economic management. As a result, the FSP began to rapidly lose its electorate, which shook its position of power. The powers of the socialists were full-scale only in 1981-86 and in 1988-93, and in other years they were limited to either the executive or the legislative branch, which led to the coexistence, respectively, of either the left president with the right-wing governments (1986-88, 1993-95), either a right-wing president with a left-wing government (1997-2002), or the complete withdrawal of power into the hands of the right (1995-97). In the 1990s - early. 2000s the socialists lost all elections - from municipal to European (except parliamentary 1997).
Constant defeats weakened the function of the FSP as a "supporting element" of the party structure and, as a result, the positions of the entire left group of the French party system, already complicated by a sharp deterioration in the position of the communists. Before the beginning. 1990s The PCF managed to maintain a stable 8-10% electorate. But then it declined: to some of the voters, the positions of the PCF seemed too traditional and dogmatic, to the other, the largest, not radical enough. In the 2002 presidential elections, only 3.4% of voters voted for the general secretary of the FKP R.Yu. The PCF, which has finally lost its position of a significant political force, lags behind the extreme left parties in popularity, whose leaders in the first round of the 2002 presidential elections in aggregate gained 11.2% of the vote (including Labor force - 5.7%, Communist revolutionary league - 4.3%). The total percentage of supporters of the FSP and FKP in 1981-2002 decreased from 37 to 19.6%.
The loss of positions by traditional left-wing parties is largely due to profound shifts in French society: the transition to the post-industrial stage of development, the growth of educational opposition, presidential or parliamentary versions of the republican system. All this leads to an increase in voting not by social belonging, but based on personal political preferences and interests. Hence - the emergence of multiple small parties and the fragmentation of the electorate.
In modern France, a situation has developed when the small number of supporters of the latest world public projects (neoliberalism, modernization, integration) does not allow the formation of a large party in support of them. On the contrary, a significant segment of voters, demanding changes, understands them as a backward movement, a kind of counter-reformation. The most consistent and active opponents of neoliberalism and integration are the electorate of right-wing and left-wing extremist parties: 1/3 of the French voting.
The rise to power of the far-right National Front began in 1974 (0.9% in the presidential elections). For a long time NF did not appear to be a significant political force. Its importance began to grow rapidly in the 1990s, when a deep and protracted economic crisis hit.
The ideological constructions of SF are very primitive. The long-term deterioration of the French economy is due to the influx of immigrants who occupied jobs, and a conspiracy of large foreign capital and "Brussels technocrats" who are alien to the interests of France. The proposed recipes are strengthening the presidential power and security structures, ending immigration, leaving the EU, including abandoning the euro.
The NF is not yet able to transform an increase in electoral influence into an increase in political influence. The majority electoral system and the refusal of the central organizations of the OPR and the FSP from pre-election agreements with the NF have so far contributed to a fairly successful reflection of attempts by the extreme right to penetrate various government bodies, incl. to the National Assembly. Therefore, the third main party in France is still a "power without power", which does not influence domestic and foreign policy.
Relatively low importance of trade unions is typical for modern France. The trade union movement, like the party movement, is distinguished by the multiplicity of its constituent organizations. The main ones are: the General Confederation of Labor (CGT), traditionally close to the PCF; the socialist-oriented French Democratic Confederation of Labor (FDKT), the independent CGT-Force Uvrier and the General Confederation of Cadres. French trade unions, formerly really mass organizations that united St. 30% of wage earners now claim 1.5 million members (10% of the wage labor force). However, of this number, the overwhelming majority are functionaries who work for hire (for example, in the FDKT - 810 thousand out of 865 thousand declared members).
Among the entrepreneurial associations, the largest is the Movement of French Companies (Medef), which groups 750 thousand firms. Medef takes an active part in the development of economic policy, gives the government recommendations on foreign economic issues, along with trade unions participates in the regulation of the labor market and in the management of the social sphere.
Domestic policy since the 1980s was distinguished by significant instability. In conditions when the two main ruling parties offered the society diametrically opposed variants of the social structure and development model, the course directly depended on the party affiliation of the prime minister and turned sharply with his change. When this post was occupied by the socialists, domestic policy had a pronounced social orientation and a redistributive character; these traits were lost when representatives of the ODA became the head of government, seeking to support business by reducing redistribution. The frequent change of the ruling parties at the helm of the government deprived both the ODA and the FSP of the opportunity to complete the reforms initiated by each of them, which negatively affected the state of the economy. The course was more consistent in other areas of public life, where the reforms being carried out were not canceled with the change of government. So, in the 1980s and 90s. the death penalty was abolished; administrative reform was carried out, uniting 96 departments in 22 larger regions; the powers of local authorities have been expanded. In the social sphere, there have been: a decrease in the retirement age from 63 to 60 years, an increase in the duration of holidays to 5 weeks, a reduction in the working week from 40 to 39, and then to 35 hours, the expansion of trade union rights, etc.
One of the main directions of the domestic policy of the government of J.P. Raffarin is the fight against crime, which really increased significantly in the 1990s. with the aggravation of the economic situation, the growth of unemployment, especially among immigrants. Reducing the crime rate was the central slogan of the pre-election campaign of J. Chirac, who insisted in this regard on the need to strengthen the relevant power structures. In the 2nd floor. In 2002, a police reform was carried out: its staffs (which were at the level of 1945 - with a 20 million population growth) and the powers of the police were expanded. Another area of domestic policy is administrative reform, which provides for decentralization, giving greater independence to local authorities.
The main direction of French foreign policy in the last quarter of the 20 - early. 21 c. European construction appeared. The creation of a Common Economic Space, a common political power, and a joint defense system are invariably proclaimed as the main goals of all presidents and all governments. France supported all measures to unite Europe: the Schengen Agreement of 1990, the Maastricht Treaty (although only 50.8% of voters voted in favor of it in a national referendum), the Amsterdam (1997) and Nice (2000) treaties. She was a supporter of EU accession, and a new phase of enlargement in the East European direction, scheduled for 2004, albeit with reservations regarding the distribution of agricultural subsidies.
France's foreign policy is characterized by constant anti-Atlanticism, which was especially clearly expressed in the position of Charles de Gaulle, which became fainter after his departure, but did not completely disappear. France constantly opposes its position to the American on practically all issues of international life. The most recent example was the attitude of France towards American actions in Iraq, which caused another deterioration in Franco-American relations.
From ser. 1990s There have been changes in relations with developing countries, expressed in the refusal to preserve priority zones of strategic influence in the former colonies and in a more global approach, providing for the reorientation of aid towards the poorest countries, regardless of their former colonial affiliation.
A member of NATO since its inception, France left the military organization in 1966. She has not returned to it until now, although in 1995 she again became a member of the NATO Defense Committee, and in 1999 she participated in the operation in Kosovo. This return is becoming more and more problematic given France's desire to create an independent EU Armed Forces.
The French Armed Forces include the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, and the Gendarme Corps. The number of the Armed Forces is 390 thousand people. (including the Navy 63 thousand people and the Air Force 83 thousand people). The transition to a professional army (since 2000) was carried out as part of the military reform carried out since 1996, the completion of which is scheduled for 2015. Its main tasks are to revise the military doctrine with a shift in emphasis on a quick response to suppress hotbeds of conflict anywhere in the world, increase the effectiveness of the Armed Forces in a decrease in their number to about 300 thousand people, as well as a reduction in military spending. Their share in the state budget for 1992-2002 decreased from 3.4 to 2.57%, while maintaining and even expanding funding for priority programs in the field of advanced weapons. In terms of military expenditures, France significantly exceeds. France also has higher spending on military R&D and arms purchases (in the 2002 budget - 28% of military spending).
France is one of the most powerful military powers in the world. It provides the national Armed Forces with modern types of weapons, and also carries out their wide export abroad. In 2002 France ranked 3rd in the world in the export of conventional weapons. France is a nuclear power, its army is armed with 348 nuclear warheads. They are equipped with ground-based aircraft and aircraft of the aircraft carrier "Charles de Gaulle", as well as 2 submarines (the launch of the third is planned for 2004).
France is the largest country in Europe, one of the most important tourist centers in the world. France also occupies a leading position in the world economy. The main legislative body is the French Parliament, which consists of two chambers: the Senate (upper house) and the National Assembly (lower house).
State structure
At the moment, the form of government in France is a presidential-parliamentary republic. The head of state is the president, who is elected for a term of 5 years. Since 2017, the President is Emmanuel Macron.
Rice. 1. The President of France - Emmanuel Macron.
Since 1958, the Fifth Republic has been operating in the country, and it was in this year that a new constitution was adopted. However, France has not always been a presidential republic. An absolute monarchy in France existed from the 16th to the 18th century. At this time, all power belonged to the monarch. Absolutism was overthrown by the Great French Revolution.
In France, as in any democratic country, there are three branches of government: judicial, executive and legislative. In the judicial system, the highest court is the cassation court. Executive power is exercised by the President, who appoints the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, in turn, is responsible for the political component of the government. Legislative power is vested in parliament, which makes laws and oversees government action.
Parliament of France
The Parliament of France is bicameral, that is, it consists of an Upper House (Senate) and a Lower House (National Assembly of France), each of which performs specific functions.
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Meetings of the National Assembly are held at the Bourbon Palace, and the Senate at the Luxembourg Palace. When the chambers come together, they sit at Versailles.
Rice. 2. Bourbon Palace in France.
The National Assembly consists of 577 deputies who are elected by direct elections under the majoritarian system for a 5-year term. The main task of the national assembly is to consider and pass new laws, as well as to closely monitor the actions of the government. The president is a representative of the leading party, and the vice president is usually a representative of the other party.
The Senate consists of 348 senators who are elected by popular vote through indirect elections for a term of 6 years.
Rice. 3. Session in the Senate in France.
The minimum age for a senator is 24
What have we learned?
France is a presidential-parliamentary republic. But this was not always the case, since a few centuries ago there was a monarchy in the country, where all power belonged to the king. Now the adoption of laws is in the department of parliament, which consists of two chambers - the Senate and the National Assembly.
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