The first settlements on the territory of modern Kiev arose from 1500 to 2000 years ago. According to legend, at the end of the 5th - beginning of the 6th century. AD brothers Kyi, Schek and Khoriv and their sister Lybid chose a place on the slopes of the Dnieper and founded a city on the steep right bank and named it, in honor of their elder brother, Kiev.
The place for the city was well chosen - the high slopes of the Dnieper served as good protection from the raids of nomadic tribes. Kiev princes, for greater security, erected their palaces and churches on the high Starokievskaya mountain. Merchants and artisans lived near the Dnieper, where the present Podil is located.
At the end of the IX century. n. e., when the Kiev princes finally managed to unite scattered and scattered tribes under their rule, Kiev became the political and cultural center of the Eastern Slavs, the capital Kievan Rus- an ancient Slavic feudal state. Due to its location on the trade routes "from the Varangians to the Greeks", Kiev for a long time maintained strong political and economic ties with the countries of Central and Western Europe.
Kiev begins to develop especially rapidly during the reign of Vladimir the Great (980 - 1015). In order to strengthen the unity of Kievan Rus and increase its influence on the international arena, Prince Vladimir baptized Rus in 988. Christianity brought significant political benefits to Kievan Rus and served as an impetus for the further development of writing and culture. Under Vladimir the Great, the first stone church was built in Kiev - the Church of the Tithes.
In the 11th century, under the rule of Yaroslav the Wise, Kiev became one of the largest centers of civilization in the Christian world. Sophia Cathedral and the first library in Russia were built. In addition, at that time the city had about 400 churches, 8 markets and more than 50,000 inhabitants. (For comparison: at the same time in Novgorod, the second largest city in Russia, there were 30,000 inhabitants; in London, Hamburg and Gdansk - 20,000 each). Kiev was among the most prosperous craft and trade centers in Europe.
However, after the death of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1125), the process of fragmentation of a more or less unified Kiev state begins. By the middle of the XII century. Kievan Rus breaks up into many independent principalities. External enemies were quick to take advantage of the situation. In the fall of 1240, countless hordes of Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, appeared under the walls of Kiev.
The Mongol-Tatars managed to take the city after a protracted and bloody battle. Thousands of Kievites were killed, most of the city was razed to the ground. A long and dark period of decline began in the history of Kiev. For almost a hundred years, the Mongol-Tatars dominated the Ukrainian lands. Nevertheless, Kiev managed to preserve its ancient, craft, merchant and cultural traditions and remain an important political, commercial and economic center. In the XIV century, the Kiev region became a stronghold of the nascent Ukrainian nationality.
In the XV century. Kiev was granted the Magdeburg Law, which ensured a much greater independence of the city in matters of international trade and significantly expanded the rights of the urban estates - artisans, merchants and burghers. In 1569, after the signing of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania united into one state, known in history as the Rzeczpospolita, and gradually consolidated their dominance in Ukraine. The cruelty and arbitrariness of foreigners led to numerous uprisings of the Ukrainian people.
Until now, historians have put forward various theories about the emergence of Kievan Rus as a state. For a long time, the official version was taken as a basis, according to which 862 is called the date of birth. But the state does not appear "out of the blue"! It is impossible to imagine that before that date, there were only savages on the territory of the Slavs' residence, who could not create their own state without help "from outside". After all, as you know, history moves along an evolutionary path. For the emergence of a state, there must be certain prerequisites. Let's try to understand the history of Kievan Rus. How was this state created? Why did it decline?
The emergence of Kievan Rus
At the moment, domestic historians adhere to 2 main versions of the emergence of Kievan Rus.
- Norman. It is based on one weighty historical document, namely the "Tale of Bygone Years". According to this theory, the ancient tribes called for the Varangians (Rurik, Sineus and Truvor) to create and manage their state. Thus, they could not create their own state education on their own. They needed outside help.
- Russian (anti-Norman). For the first time, the rudiments of the theory were formulated by the famous Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov. He argued that the entire history of the ancient Russian state was written by foreigners. Lomonosov was sure that there was no logic in this story, that the important question of the nationality of the Varangians was not disclosed.
Unfortunately, until the end of the 9th century, there is no mention of the Slavs in the annals. It is suspicious that Rurik "came to rule the Russian state" when it already had its own traditions, customs, its own language, cities and ships. That is, Russia did not arise from scratch. Old Russian cities were very well developed (including from a military point of view).
According to generally accepted sources, 862 is considered the date of foundation of the ancient Russian state. It was then that Rurik began to rule in Novgorod. In 864, his associates Askold and Dir seized princely power in Kiev. Eighteen years later, in 882, Oleg, who is commonly called the Prophet, captured Kiev and became the Grand Duke. He managed to unite the disparate Slavic lands, and it was during his reign that the campaign against Byzantium was made. More and more territories and cities were added to the grand princely lands. During the reign of Oleg, there were no major clashes between Novgorod and Kiev. This was largely due to blood ties and kinship.
Formation and flourishing of Kievan Rus
Kievan Rus was a powerful and developed state. Its capital was a fortified outpost located on the banks of the Dnieper. Taking power in Kiev meant becoming the head of vast territories. It was Kiev that was compared to the “mother of Russian cities” (although Novgorod, from where Askold and Dir arrived in Kiev, was quite worthy of such a title). The city retained the status of the capital of the ancient Russian lands until the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
- Among the key events of the heyday of Kievan Rus can be called the Baptism in 988, when the country abandoned idolatry in favor of Christianity.
- The reign of Prince Yaroslav the Wise led to the fact that at the beginning of the 11th century the first Russian law code (code of laws) appeared under the name "Russian Truth".
- The Kiev prince became related with many famous ruling European dynasties. Also, under Yaroslav the Wise, the raids of the Pechenegs, which brought Kievan Rus a lot of troubles and suffering, forever turned.
- Also, from the end of the 10th century, its own coin production began on the territory of Kievan Rus. Silver and gold coins appeared.
The period of civil strife and the collapse of Kievan Rus
Unfortunately, an understandable and uniform system of succession to the throne was not developed in Kievan Rus. Various grand-princely lands for military and other merits were handed out to vigilantes.
Only after the end of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise was such a principle of inheritance established, which implied the transfer of power over Kiev to the eldest in the family. All other lands were divided between members of the Rurik family in accordance with the principle of seniority (but this could not remove all the contradictions and problems). After the death of the ruler, dozens of heirs remained, claiming the "throne" (from brothers, sons, and ending with nephews). Despite certain rules of inheritance, the supreme power was often asserted by force: through bloody clashes and wars. Only a few independently renounced the control of Kievan Rus.
Applicants for the title of Grand Duke of Kiev did not shy away from the most terrible deeds. Literature and history describe the terrible example of Svyatopolk the Accursed. He went to fratricide only in order to gain power over Kiev.
Many historians come to the conclusion that it was the internecine wars that became the factor that led to the collapse of Kievan Rus. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Tatar-Mongols began to attack actively in the 13th century. "Small rulers with big ambitions" could unite against the enemy, but no. The princes dealt with internal problems "in their own area", did not compromise and desperately defended their own interests to the detriment of others. As a result, Russia for a couple of centuries fell into complete dependence on the Golden Horde, and the rulers were forced to pay tribute to the Tatar-Mongols.
The preconditions for the coming collapse of Kievan Rus were formed even during the reign of Vladimir the Great, who decided to give each of the 12 sons his own city. The beginning of the disintegration of Kievan Rus is called the year 1132, when Mstislav the Great died. Then two powerful centers at once refused to recognize the grand-ducal power in Kiev (Polotsk and Novgorod).
In the XII century. there was a rivalry between 4 main lands: Volyn, Suzdal, Chernigov and Smolensk. As a result of internecine clashes Kiev was periodically plundered and churches were burnt. In 1240 the city was burnt down by the Tatar-Mongols. The influence gradually weakened, in 1299 the metropolitan's residence was transferred to Vladimir. To control the Russian lands, it was no longer necessary to occupy Kiev
History of Kiev- the largest city in Ukraine - is at least 1200 years old. According to the chronicle, Kiev was founded by three brothers: Kiem, Cheek, Horeb and their sister Lybid and is named after Kiy, the older brother.
Prehistoric period
Archaeological excavations show that settlements on the territory of the Kiev region existed already 15 - 20 thousand years ago. Eneolithic period(copper age) and Neolithic period is represented by Trypillian culture, the monuments and periods of which researchers divide into three stages: early (4500 - 3500), middle (3500-2750) and late (2750-2000 BC).
The south-west of the region during the Bronze Age is characterized by Belohrudovskaya culture... The Zarubinets culture is characteristic of the north-west of the Kiev region of the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. - the first half of the 1st millennium AD e.
Iron age on the territory of modern Kiev and the Kiev region is represented by the Chernyakhov archaeological culture, which is also called "Kiev culture" and which existed at the turn of the II-III centuries. - at the turn of the IV-V centuries. in the forest-steppe and steppe from the Lower Danube in the west to the left bank of the Dnieper and Chernigov region in the east.
Etymology
Toponym "Kiev" did not receive an unambiguous explanation in science. According to the chronicle, the name of the city comes from the name of its founder. In the "Tale of Bygone Years" of the beginning of the XII century, it is said that Kiev was founded by three brothers Kiy, Schek and Khoriv and sister Lybid as the center of the Polyan tribe. Named after older brother. The city at that time consisted of a prince's court and a tower.
A version of the same legend is given in the essay of the Armenian author Zenob Gluck ("The History of Taron"), which speaks of the founding of Kuar (Kiev) in the country of Poluni (Polyans) by Kuar, Mentey and Kherean.
Folk etymology explains the name of Kiev by the fact that its first inhabitants were workers (kiyans, kiyans) who served the crossing of the Dnieper. The ferry was a wooden flooring on pillars (cues) driven into the bottom. Similar place names are known in other Slavic lands (for example, Kijevo in Croatia, Kuyavia in Poland). Harvard scholar Omelyan Pritsak considered the origin of the toponym Turkic or Jewish. The idea of founding the city by the Khazars was also shared by G. Vernadsky.
Early history
Kiy, Schek, Khoriv and Lybid found Kiev
The history of Kiev is at least 1200 years old. According to the chronicle, Kiev was founded by three brothers: Kiy, Schek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid and named after Kiy, an older brother. The exact date of the foundation of the city has not been established.
The results of archaeological excavations indicate that already in the 6th-7th centuries on the right bank of the Dnieper there were settlements, which some researchers interpret as urban.
Remains of fortifications, dwellings, ceramics were found VI-VII centuries, Byzantine coins of the emperors Anastasius I (491-518) and Justinian I (527-565), amphorae, numerous jewelry.
For most of IX century Kiev was in the unstable zone of the Hungarian-Khazar conflict.
According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" in the second half of the 9th century, warriors reigned in Kiev Varangian Rurik - Askold and Dir, who freed the glades from the Khazar dependence.
In 879, the owner of the Novgorod land, Prince Rurik, died, and power was transferred Oleg - the regent of the young son of Rurik- Igor. The chronicle document testifies that in 882 Oleg undertook a campaign against Kiev, killed Askold and seized power. Kiev became the capital of the united principality.
At the same time, there was an increase in the scale of construction on the territory of Kiev, as evidenced by archaeological materials found in the Upper Town, Podil, Kirillovskaya Gora, Pechersk. The construction was due to the rapid increase in the population of the city, who arrived from different regions of Russia. During the resettlement from the Volga region to the banks of the Danube at the end of the 9th century, the Hungarians stopped on the territory of modern Kiev: "Idosh the Ugrians past Kiev, now Ugorskoe is a mountain hedgehog, and when they came to the Dnieper, stasha vezha."
During his reign, Oleg annexed the northerners, Drevlyans, ulitsy, Tivertsy, pelmen Krivichi, Radimichi and Novgorod Slavs to Russia. During one of the numerous campaigns to neighboring territories, Prince Oleg died.
In the year 914 Igor undertook a campaign against the Drevlyans, who were trying to secede from Kiev. In 941 he organized a campaign against Byzantium to secure the interests of trade. Numerous and large-scale military campaigns required significant costs and resources, prompting the prince to increase tribute from the conquered lands. One of these tribute harvests in 945 led to the uprising of the Drevlyans, during which Igor was killed.
One of the first documents where the name of Kiev is mentioned is the Kiev letter, written in the 10th century by the local Jewish community. In the Arabic writings of the same period (Ibn Haukal, Istakhri, etc.) Kiev (Kuyaba) appears as the center of one of the groups of Rus, along with Novgorod (as-Slavia) and Arsania. In another part of the narrative by the same authors, Kiev is opposed to the Rus, which probably reflects an earlier state of affairs.
Capital of Russia (IX-XII centuries)
Baptism of Russia
Since the capture of the city by Oleg and until the second half of the XIII century, Kiev was the capital of Russia. The Kiev grand dukes traditionally had supremacy over the princes of other Russian lands, and the Kiev table was the main target in intradynastic rivalries. In 968, the city withstood the siege of the Pechenegs, which was due to the fortified outposts of Kiev, the largest of which was Vyshgorod.
Chronicle mentions of this fortress city are interrupted after the invasion of Batu in 1240.
In 988, by order of Prince Vladimir the inhabitants of the city were baptized in the Dnieper. Russia became a Christian state, the Kiev Metropolis was founded, which existed within the all-Russian borders until 1458.
In 990, the construction of the first stone church in Russia began. According to church tradition, it was built on the site of the murder of the first martyrs Theodore and his son John. The church was destroyed by the hordes of Batu Khan during a raid on Kiev in 1240.
In the 9th-10th centuries the city was built up with quarters of log and frame-and-pillar structures; the princely part also had stone houses. In Podil, as the "Tale of Bygone Years" testifies, in the first half of the 10th century there was a Christian church - the cathedral church of the Holy Prophet Elijah.
During the reign of Vladimir, about a third of Kiev consisted of princely lands, on which the palace was located. The city of Vladimir was surrounded by an earthen rampart and a moat. The central entrance was the stone Gradsk (later - Sophia, Batu) gates.
The territory of the city of Vladimir occupied about 10-12 hectares. The ramparts of the city of Vladimir were based on wooden structures and have not survived to this day.
At that time Kiev maintained broad international ties: with Byzantium, the countries of the East, Scandinavia, and Western Europe. Convincing evidence of this is contained in written sources, as well as in archaeological materials: about 11 thousand Arab dirhams of the 7th-10th centuries, hundreds of Byzantine and Western European coins, Byzantine amphorae and many other artifacts of foreign origin were found on the territory of Kiev. Svyatopolk, organized the murder of Boris and the second probable heir, Gleb. However, Svyatopolk was defeated by the troops Yaroslav the Wise in the battle of Lyubech and lost the Kiev reign. He asked the Polish king Boleslav I for help. He agreed and embarked on a campaign against Kiev. Having defeated the army of Yaroslav the Wise on the banks of the Bug, Boleslav and Svyatopolk entered Kiev. But the inhabitants of Kiev did not accept the new prince. In 1018, an uprising took place, as a result of which Yaroslav was returned to the throne.
According to the German Titmar of Merseburg, Kiev early XI century was a large city, with 400 temples and 8 marketplaces. Adam of Bremen in the early 70s of the XI century called him "the rival of Constantinople." Kiev reached its "golden age" in the middle of the 11th century under Yaroslav the Wise. The city has grown significantly in size. In addition to the princely court, on its territory were the courtyards of other sons of Vladimir and other dignitaries (about ten in total). There were three entrances to the city: the Golden Gate, Lyadsky Gate, Zhidovsky Gate. The chronicles mention the construction of the city of Yaroslav under the year 1037.
“In the summer of 6545 (1037), with Yaroslav founded the city of great Kiev, his city is the Golden Gate; Lay the Church of St. Sophia, Metropolitan, and seven Church on the Golden Gate of the Mother of God. "The Tale of Bygone Years"
The city of Yaroslav was located on an area of over 60 hectares, was surrounded by a moat with a depth of 12 m and a high rampart 3.5 km long, 30 m wide at the base, with a total height of up to 16 m with a wooden palisade.
During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, St. Sophia Cathedral was built with numerous frescoes and mosaics, the most famous of which is the Mother of God of Oranta. In 1051, Prince Yaroslav gathered bishops in the St. Sophia Cathedral and elected the local native Hilarion as Metropolitan, thereby demonstrating confessional independence from Byzantium. In the same year, the monk Anthony Pechersky founded the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra.
The co-founder of the Pechersk Monastery was one of the first students of Anthony - Theodosius.
Prince Svyatoslav II Yaroslavich presented the monastery with a plateau above the caves, where later stone temples, decorated with paintings, cells, fortress towers and other structures grew.
The names of the chronicler Nestor and the artist Alipy are associated with the monastery.
In 1054, a split of the Christian church took place, but Kiev managed to maintain good relations with Rome. The so-called Izyaslav-Svyatopolk city, the center of which was the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, became the third part of the old Kiev in terms of the time of its emergence. It was separated from the Starokievsky plateau by a ravine-gully, along which, according to one of the versions, the chronicle lift of Borichev, where the old Russian customs was once, passed.
In 1068, a veche performance against Izyaslav was organized after the defeat of the Russian troops in the battle with the Polovtsy on the Alta River. As a result, Izyaslav was forced to flee to Polotsk, the throne was temporarily occupied by Vseslav Bryachislavich.
The collapse of the Old Russian state and feudal fragmentation (XII century - 1240)
After the death of the Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1113), a popular uprising took place in Kiev; the top of Kiev society called for reign Vladimir Monomakh(May 4, 1113). Having become a Kiev prince, he suppressed the uprising, but at the same time he was forced to somewhat soften the position of the lower classes by legislative means.
This is how the "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh" or "Charter of cuts" was created, which became part of the expanded edition of "Russkaya Pravda". This charter limited the profits of usurers, determined the conditions for enslavement and, without encroaching on the foundations of feudal relations, eased the position of debtors and purchases. The ancient Slavic capital during the reign of the Yaroslavichs and Vladimir Monomakh personified the lack of solidity and scarcity in development, on the contrary, it was only in ancient Kiev that the methods of designing streets and squares were first applied, taking into account the legislative framework regulating the aesthetic side of housing construction.
The largest area of ancient Kiev was Podil. Its area in the XII-XII centuries was 200 hectares. It was also famous for its fortifications, the so-called pillars, which are mentioned in the chronicle of the 12th century. In the center of Podol there was a chronicle "Trade", around which there were monumental religious buildings: the Church of Pirogoshcha (1131-35), Borisoglebskaya and Mikhailovskaya churches. The massive development of Kiev was predominantly wooden, it consisted of quarters of log and frame-and-pole buildings, mostly two-story. The layout of the city was manor-street.
The economic basis of the city was: agricultural production, handicrafts, as well as trade. On the territory where the districts of ancient Kiev were located, the remains of workshops, products made of clay, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, stone, bone, glass, wood and other materials were found. They testify that in the XII century artisans of more than 60 specialties worked in Kiev.
In Russia, the possession of the Kiev grand-ducal table belonged (at least theoretically) to the eldest in the family and provided supreme power over the appanage princes. Kiev remained the real political center of the Russian land at least until the death of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav the Great (in 1132).
The rise of separate lands with their own dynasties during the 12th century undermined the political significance of the city, gradually turning it into an honorary prize for the most powerful prince and, accordingly, into an apple of discord. Unlike other lands, the Kiev principality did not develop its own dynasty. The main struggle for it was fought between the princes from four Russian principalities: Vladimir-Suzdal, Volyn, Smolensk and Chernigov.
Kiev was dealt a serious blow by the allied army of the Russian prince Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1169.
For the first time during the period of civil strife, Kiev was taken by storm and plundered. For two days the people of Suzdal, Smolensk and Chernigov robbed and burned the city, palaces and temples. In monasteries and churches, not only jewelry was taken away, but also icons, crosses, bells, vestments. Following this, the Vladimir princes also began to bear the title of "great". The connection between the recognition of the eldership in the princely family and the possession of Kiev from that moment became optional. Very often, the princes who took possession of Kiev preferred not to stay in it themselves, but to give it to their dependent relatives.
In 1203, Kiev was captured and burned by the Smolensk prince Rurik Rostislavovich and the Polovtsy allied to Rurik.
During the internecine wars of the 1230s, the city was besieged and ruined several times, passing from hand to hand. By the time of the Mongol campaign against South Russia, the Kiev prince was a representative of the oldest branch of the Monomakhovich family in Russia - Daniil Galitsky.
Mongol invasion and the rule of the Golden Horde (1240-1362)
The destruction of Kiev by the Mongols
In December 1240 Kiev endured the siege of the Mongols. Then Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov ruled in the city from 1241 to 1243, when during his departure to Hungary for the wedding of his son Rostislav Kiev was captured by Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky.
Yaroslav received a shortcut to Kiev in the Horde and was recognized as the supreme ruler of all Russian lands, "the old prince in the Russian language."
In 1262, the Kiev pilot book was created, which became the prototype of the Volyn, Ryazan and other pilot books.
In fact, however, the defeated Kiev lost both its economic and political significance, and after that its spiritual monopoly: in 1299, the Kiev metropolitan left for Vladimir, from where the metropolitan throne was then transferred to Moscow. The main core of the city (Gora and Podil) was within the traditional boundaries. After the construction of the wooden-earthen castle, the Castle Hill turned into the town's detinets. The main number of residents at that time was concentrated in Podol, here were the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin and the city bargaining, and later - the magistrate with the town hall.
The Mongols did not deliberately destroy the city. The main reason for the gradual destruction of most of the structures that survived in 1240 was that as a result of the Mongol defeat of the ancient Russian state system and the destruction of the economic base of the city - the Middle Dnieper region, as well as the establishment of the Golden Horde yoke, Kiev did not have the means to maintain a large number of stone structures. Only a few churches survived, which found economic support: St. Sophia, Assumption, Vydubitsky, St. Michael's Golden Domed, St. Cyril's Cathedrals, the Church of the Assumption.
The history of the Kiev principality in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XIV centuries is poorly known. It was ruled by local provincial princes who did not claim the all-Russian supremacy. In 1324 the Kiev prince Stanislav was defeated in the battle on the Irpen River by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas. Since that time, the city was in the sphere of influence of Lithuania, but the payment of tribute to the Golden Horde continued for several more decades.
As part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Commonwealth
In 1362 after the Battle of Blue Waters, Kiev finally ended up in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Vladimir Olgerdovich became the prince of Kiev. The entry took place through a peaceful diplomatic route. Vladimir led an independent policy, minted his own coin, which, however, led to his replacement in 1394 in the reign of Skirgail Olgerdovich, and after the death of the latter, to the establishment of the governorship. At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century, Kiev is a political center, where the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, the King of Poland and the Supreme Duke of Lithuania Vladislav II Yagailo, the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily Dmitrievich, Metropolitans Cyprian, Photius, Gregory (Tsamblak), Khan Tokhtamysh are negotiating. The city became the main base of Vitovt's army, who launched an offensive against the Golden Horde, but was defeated in 1399 on Vorskla. Khan Timur-Kutluk then besieged Kiev, but did not take it, having received a ransom from the Kievites.
In the XIV century, a castle with wooden fortifications and towers was built in the center of Kiev, and the only tower clock in the city was located in the castle. The castle served as the residence of three Kiev princes: Vladimir Olgerdovich, his son Olelko and grandson Semyon.
In 1416 year the city (with the exception of the castle) was destroyed by the troops of the Golden Horde Emir Edigei. After Vitovt's death in 1430, Kiev became the main base of the "Russian party" of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Svidrigail. Kievans actively participated in the struggle against the Lithuanian center. In 1436, the Kiev governor Yursha defeated Lithuanian troops near the city.
Since the end of the XIV century, the names of students from Kiev appear in the lists of the Parisian Sorbonne and other universities; under 1436 the first doctor of the "Ruthenian nation from Kiev" - Ivan Tinkevich is indicated.
In 1440 the Kiev principality was restored, headed by Prince Olelko Vladimirovich. In 1455-70, Semyon Olelkovich reigned in Kiev. Both princes enjoyed authority, had dynastic ties with the great Moscow and Tver princes, the Moldavian ruler Stephen III the Great. The time of their reign became a period of development for Kiev: the reconstruction of the Assumption Cathedral and other churches was carried out, stone bas-reliefs with the image of Oranta were created, as well as new editions of the Paterik of Kiev-Pechersk and other written sources. Kiev continued to be an important center for domestic and international trade. A lot of goods from the East, Europe, Muscovy passed through the city. This was facilitated, in particular, by the fact that the safety of the caravans that moved through the Ukrainian lands, the Lithuanian authorities guaranteed only when their routes passed through Kiev. Kiev was a potential center for the unification of the Russian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, therefore, after the death of the Kiev prince Semyon Olelkovich, the Lithuanian government turned the principality into a voivodeship. An attempt by the people of Kiev to prevent the governor Martin Gashtold from entering the city, the conspiracy of the princes in 1481 led by Prince Mikhail Olelkovich and the uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky in 1508 ended in failure.
After the division of the all-Russian metropolis into Moscow and Lithuanian parts in the middle of the 15th century, Kiev became the center of the latter. In 1482 the city was destroyed by the army of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. In 1494-1497 Kiev received city rights (Magdeburg Law). After the Union of Lublin in 1569, it was transferred to the Polish crown lands. In 1596, the Kiev Orthodox Metropolitanate passed into union with Rome.
Within the framework of the acute struggle between the Uniates and the Orthodox, the role of the city as the spiritual center of Orthodoxy increased again. Under archimandrites Elisey Pletenetsky and Zachary Kopystensky in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra in The printing house was founded in 1616 and the printing of liturgical and polemical books began, at this printing house in 1627 Pamvo Berynda published the "Lexicon of Slavonic Albo of Interpretation Names". Pyotr Mogila started a school here, which was later merged with a brotherly school and served the beginning of the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium.
As part of the Russian Kingdom and the Russian Empire (1654-1917)
After the Pereyaslavl Rada on the square in front of the ancient Church of the Assumption of the Virgin of Pirogoscha, the population of Kiev took the oath of allegiance to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In Kiev, a Russian garrison of archers and a reitar was stationed, which held the city throughout all the vicissitudes of the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667. Voivode Vasily Sheremetev repeatedly repulsed the attacks of Hetman Ivan Vygovsky, and after Sheremetev's defeat at Chudnov, contrary to the agreements, Kiev refused to surrender the new voivode Yuri Baryatinsky to the Poles, and the Poles could not achieve the capture of the city by force.
January 31, 1667 the Andrusov armistice was concluded, under the terms of which the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceded Smolensk and the Left-Bank Ukraine in favor of the Russian kingdom. Kiev was ceded to Poland initially temporarily, then, according to the "Eternal Peace" of 1686 - permanently. None of the Polish-Russian treaties concerning Kiev was ever ratified again. Since 1721 it has been the center of the Kiev province.
At the end of the 17th century, the territory of Kiev was located only on the right bank of the Dnieper. The city had a shape stretched along the coast. Three divided parts of the city were distinguished: the Lower City (Podil), where the academy and the fraternal church were located; The Upper Town with St. Sophia Cathedral and St. Michael's Monastery; Pechersk, the eastern part of which was protected by the defensive ramparts of the Lavra. Intensive urban construction was due to the patronage of Ivan Mazepa. In fact, these three separate territories united into a monolithic urban formation only in the 19th century.
XVIII century becomes a century of intensive development of the city and the emergence of many of its architectural masterpieces. In 1701, the central building of the Vydubitsky monastery was built in Kiev - the St. George Church, one of the prominent sights of the Ukrainian Baroque. During the Elizabethan era, under the leadership of the Moscow architect Ivan Michurin, two more Baroque buildings were being built in Kiev according to the project of Bartolomeo Rastrelli: the Mariinsky Palace and St. Andrew's Church.
The ancient churches and monasteries of Kievan Rus underwent a significant restructuring in the Ukrainian Baroque style: St. Sophia Cathedral, St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. In the latter, among other things, the Assumption Cathedral was renovated, the Great Lavra Bell Tower was erected - the tallest building in the city. In 1772, according to the plan of the architect Ivan Grigorovich-Barsky, the Orthodox Church of the Intercession was built in Podil.
September 16, 1781 years after the abolition of the Hetmanate and its centennial regimental structure, the Kiev governorship was formed. The viceroyalty included the territories of the Kiev, Pereyaslav, Lubensky and Mirgorod regiments.
In 1811 took place one of the largest fires in the history of Kiev. Thanks to the coincidence of many circumstances, and according to some testimonies and arson, an entire area of the city - Podol - was destroyed. The fire in three days (July 9-11) destroyed over 2 thousand houses, 12 churches, 3 monasteries. The hem was rebuilt again according to the project of architects Andrey Melensky and William Geste.
Even after Kiev and the surrounding area ceased to be a part of Poland, Poles made up a considerable share of the city's population. V 1812
year in Kiev, there were more than 4300 minor Polish lords. For comparison, there were approximately 1,000 Russian noblemen in the city. Usually the nobles spent the winter in Kiev, where they amused themselves for festivities and trips to the fair. Until the middle of the 18th century, Kiev experienced a significant influence of Polish culture.
Although Poles made up no more than ten percent of the population of Kiev, they accounted for 25% of the voters, since at that time there was a property qualification for voters. In the 1830s, there were many schools in Kiev with Polish as the language of instruction, and before the enrollment of Poles at the University of St. Vladimir was not limited in 1860, they made up the majority of the students of this institution. The abolition of the autonomy of the city of Kiev by the Russian government and its transfer to the rule of bureaucrats, which was dictated by a directive from St. Petersburg, were largely motivated by fear of a Polish uprising in the city.
Warsaw factories and small Polish stores had their branches in Kiev. Josef Zawadsky, founder of the Kiev Stock Exchange, was the mayor of the city in 1890. Kiev Poles tended to be friendly towards the Ukrainian national movement in the city, and some even took part in it.
Many poor Polish nobles became Ukrainianized in language and culture, and these Ukrainians of Polish descent became an important element of the growing Ukrainian national movement. Kiev served as a kind of destination, where such activists came together with the pro-Ukrainian descendants of Cossack officers from the left bank. Many of them wanted to leave the city and move to the countryside in order to try to spread Ukrainian ideas among the peasants.
In 1834 as part of the fight against Polish domination in this region in the field of education, on the initiative of Nicholas I, the Imperial University of St. Vladimir, now known as the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. It was the second university on the territory of Little Russia after the Kharkov Imperial University. In 1853, on the initiative of the emperor, who called Kiev "Jerusalem of the Russian land" and was very concerned about its development, the Nikolaev chain bridge was opened.
The rapid growth of the city in the first half of the 19th century made it necessary to draw up a plan that could regulate and streamline the development. Despite the fact that one of the first general plans was drawn up back in 1750, it basically fixed the existing situation. In fact, the first master plan, in the modern sense of the word, was drawn up by the architect Beretti and the engineer Shmigelsky (approved in 1837). According to this plan, intensive construction was carried out along the Lybed river, in Pechersk, Podol, Vladimirskaya street, Bibikovsky (now T. Shevchenko) boulevard, Khreshchatyk street were laid.
To strengthen Kiev militarily, the Kiev fortress was opened in the 19th century. It was built back in 1679, when the Cossack troops under the leadership of Hetman Samoilovich united the old Kiev and Pechersk fortifications, forming one large fortress. The next period in the development of Kiev's defensive structures is determined by the construction of the Pechersk Citadel under the leadership of Hetman Ivan Mazepa by order of Peter I.
The construction took place according to the plan of the French engineer Vauban. On the eve of the Patriotic War of 1812. According to the project of the military engineer Opperman, the earthen Zverinetsky fortification was built, connected with the Pechersk citadel. Large-scale renovations are carried out during the reign of Tsar Nicholas I, who approved the plan for expanding the fortress. By the beginning of the 60s of the XIX century, it consisted of the following parts: the core ?? - the citadel, two independent fortifications (Vasilkovskoe and Hospital), supplemented defensive barracks and towers.
During the Russian industrial revolution at the end of the 19th century, Kiev became an important center of trade and transport for the Russian Empire, this economic-geographical area specialized in sugar and grain export by rail and along the Dnieper River. In 1900, the city became an influential industrial center with a population of 250,000. The architectural monuments of that period include the railway infrastructure, the basis of numerous educational and cultural sites, as well as architectural monuments built mainly with the money of merchants, for example, the Brodsky synagogue.
At that time, a large Jewish community emerged in Kiev, which developed its own ethnic culture and interests. This was caused by the ban on Jewish settlements in Russia itself (Moscow and St. Petersburg), as well as in the Far East. Expelled from Kiev in 1654, Jews probably could not settle in the city again until the early 1790s. On December 2, 1827, Nicholas I issued a decree prohibiting Jews from permanently living in Kiev. Kiev Jews were subject to eviction, and only some of their categories could come for a limited time, and two special farmsteads were assigned for their stay. V 1881 and 1905 the famous pogroms in the city resulted in the deaths of about 100 Jews. An example of anti-Semitic politics is also the Beilis case, the trial of Mendel Beilis' murder of a religious school student. The process was accompanied by large-scale public protests. The accused was acquitted.
In the 19th century the architectural development of the city continues. In 1882, the St. Vladimir Cathedral, built in the neo-Byzantine style, was opened, in the painting of which Viktor Vasnetsov, Mikhail Nesterov and others later participated. In 1888, according to the project of the famous sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin, a monument to Bogdan Khmelnitsky was opened in Kiev. The opening of the monument, located in front of the St. Sophia Cathedral, was timed to coincide with the 900th anniversary of the baptism of Rus.
In 1902, according to the plan of the architect Vladislav Gorodetsky, the House with Chimeras was built in Kiev - the most outstanding building of the early decorative Art Nouveau in Kiev. The name is derived from concrete sculptural decorations of mythological and hunting themes.
At the beginning of the 20th century in Kiev, the housing issue has become aggravated. On March 21, 1909, the provincial authorities approved the charter of the First Kiev Society of Apartment Owners. This event served as the beginning of the construction of houses on a cooperative basis, which was a convenient and easy solution to the housing problem for the "middle class". The development of aviation (both military and amateur) was another notable manifestation of progress at the beginning of the 20th century. Such outstanding aviation figures as Pyotr Nesterov (a pioneer in the field of aerobatics) and Igor Sikorsky (creator of the world's first serial helicopter R-4, 1942) worked in Kiev. In 1892, it was in Kiev that the first electric tram line in the Russian Empire was launched. In 1911, while visiting the Kiev Opera, Russian Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin was fatally wounded by the anarchist Dmitry Bogrov. Buried on the territory of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, Stolypin was subsequently unveiled a monument opposite the building of the City Duma.
Revolutionary period and Civil war
The complex interaction of multidirectional political interests, the transition to the political stage of the national liberation movement, the activation of radical left political currents led to intense revolutionary upheavals of 1917-21. In the course of the social revolution that began in February 1917 in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) and quickly engulfed all industrial centers and rural periphery of the European part of the Russian Empire, Kiev became the epicenter of the events of the first year of the Ukrainian revolution of 1917-21.
Created in the city in February 1917 The Ukrainian Central Rada (Ukrainian local self-government body headed by the historian Mikhail Hrushevsky) convened the first Ukrainian national government in the 20th century - the General Secretariat of the Ukrainian Central Rada, proclaimed the Ukrainian People's Republic in November 1917, and in January 1918 - an independent, sovereign Ukraine. This short period of independence saw a rapid rise in the cultural and political status of Kiev. A large number of professional Ukrainian-language theaters and libraries were created.
However, the UCR did not have a solid social support in Kiev. During the Bolshevik offensive on Kiev, they relied on the support of a significant part of the Kiev workers, who organized an uprising against the Central Rada, suppressed by Petliura's troops (February 4, 1918), but facilitated the subsequent capture of Kiev by the Bolshevik 1st Army of Muravyov (February 8, 1918). Most of the military formations located in Kiev remained neutral, the UCR threw untrained detachments of Kiev gymnasium students and students into battle (the so-called battle at Kruty).
The UCR, expelled from Kiev, asked for help from the countries of the Quadruple Alliance that occupied Ukraine as a result of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, and on March 1, 1918, German and Austro-Hungarian troops, accompanied by the Petliurists, entered Kiev. However, the left and nationalist nature of the Central Rada did not suit the Germans, and on April 28, 1918, it was dispersed by a German patrol. On April 29, at the All-Ukrainian Congress of grain growers in the Kiev circus, the hetmanate was proclaimed and General P. Skoropadsky was elected hetman, the military formations of the UPR in Kiev were disarmed.
Kiev became the capital of the Ukrainian state, headed by Hetman P. Skoropadsky. Among all the regimes that succeeded each other in Kiev, except for Denikin's, this one was the most conservative. Under him, the Academy of Sciences was created in Kiev.
In mid-December 1918, the Germans left Kiev, the hetman was overthrown and fled, and on December 14, Petliura's troops entered Kiev, restoring the UPR. When on January 22, 1919, the Directory of the UPR proclaimed the Act of unification with the ZUNR, Kiev became the capital of the cathedral Ukraine, but two weeks later the Directory left it under the pressure of the advancing Soviet troops that entered the city on the night of February 5-6, 1919.
On April 10, 1919, the Red troops were driven out of part of Kiev (Podol, Svyatoshino, Kurenyovka) for 1 day by the unit of Ataman Struk, who was operating in the Chernobyl district.
On August 31, 1919, the Soviets ceded power to Denikin's Volunteer Army (see the capture of Kiev by the Volunteer Army). Together with the troops of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia under the command of N.E.Bredov, units of the Galician army and the army of the UPR, united under the command of Petliura, entered Kiev. However, after an incident in the center of Kiev, when one of the UNR soldiers tore down the Russian flag, the Ukrainian units were immediately disarmed by Denikin's forces and expelled from the city; in Ukrainian historiography, this event is called the Kiev catastrophe.
As a result of the raid of the Red Army on October 14, 1919, the Whites were briefly driven out of the city in the eastern suburb - Darnitsa, but the next day they counterattacked and by October 18 threw the Reds back beyond Irpen. After the new occupation of Kiev, Denikinites and local residents staged a pogrom of Jews suspected of supporting the Bolsheviks.
The Red Army returned to Kiev on December 16, 1919, crossing the freezing Dnieper and knocking out the Denikinites.
On May 7, 1920, during the Polish-Soviet war, Kiev was occupied by Polish troops with the help of their allied UPR army. After the abandonment of the city by the Polish and Petliura troops (during the Kiev operation of the Red Army), Soviet power was finally established here (June 12, 1920). Thus, from the beginning of 1917 (the February Revolution) to the middle of 1920 (the departure of the Poles), the power in Kiev changed 13 times.
Interwar period
In October 1921, in Kiev, supporters of the ideas of the autocephalous church convened the "All-Ukrainian Council of the Clergy and Laity", in which none of the bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church took part. At the council, it was decided to independently, without the participation of the bishops, perform ordination, which was soon fulfilled. The Renovation movement in the Russian Church, supported by the GPU, at the Council in 1923 recognized the autocephaly of the Church in the Ukrainian SSR. However, in 1930, in view of the new political realities, the UAOC decided to dissolve itself. The clergy of the UAOC was almost completely liquidated.
In 1922, the creative association "Berezil" was founded in Kiev on the basis of one of the groups of the "Young Theater" collective. The first performance "October" (the text of the creative production team) took place on November 7, 1922. It worked as a state theater from 1922 to 1926 in Kiev, and from 1926 - in Kharkov (the then capital of Soviet Ukraine). The period of the theater's life and formation in Kiev is considered a "political" period, and the Kharkov period is considered a philosophical one.
On May 17, 1924, the first kindergarten in Kiev "Orlyonok" was founded. In the 1930s, a dedicated building was built for it, which subsequently won many styling awards.
In 1930, the film "Earth" by Ukrainian director Alexander Dovzhenko was filmed in Kiev. According to Sight & Sound magazine, the film is one of the best examples of Soviet silent cinema. At the World Exhibition in Brussels, Earth was ranked tenth among the 12 best films in the history of cinema.
In social terms, this period was accompanied by repressions against many representatives of the creative professions (for these events there is the term "shot revival"). In addition, the process of destruction of churches and monuments, which began in the 1920s, reached its climax. Examples of this are the demolition of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery and the confiscation of property from the Cathedral of St. Sophia.
The urban population continued to grow, mainly due to migrants. Migration changed the ethnic demography of the city from Russian-Ukrainian to predominantly Ukrainian-Russian, although Russian remained the dominant language. Kievans also suffered from the volatile Soviet policies of the time. Encouraging Ukrainians to pursue careers and develop their culture (Ukrainization), the Soviet government soon launched a struggle against "nationalism." Political processes were organized in the city to cleanse it of "Western spies", "Ukrainian nationalists", opponents of Joseph Stalin and the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks).
At the end of this period, secret mass shootings began in Kiev. The Kiev intelligentsia, clergy and party activists were arrested, shot and buried in mass graves. The main places of action were Babi Yar and Bykovnyansky forests. At the same time, the city's economy continued to grow thanks to the industrialization course proclaimed back in 1927. In 1932, the building of the central railway station was built in the Ukrainian Baroque style with elements of constructivism.
In 1932-33, the population of the city, like in most other cities of the USSR (Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus and Ukraine), suffered from famine (Holodomor). In Kiev, bread and other food products were distributed to people on food ration cards in accordance with daily rate but bread was in short supply, and citizens queued up all night to get it. The victims of the Holodomor in Kiev can be divided into three parts: victims from among the residents of Kiev proper; victims of the suburbs of Kiev; peasants who reached the city in different ways in the hope of surviving and died already in Kiev. If we proceed from the fact that as of the autumn of 1931 the population of Kiev was 586 thousand people, and at the beginning of 1934 - 510 thousand, then taking into account the birth rate for this period, the losses of Kiev amounted to more than 100 thousand people. Historian Sergei Belokon cites the number of 54,150 victims in 1933.
In 1934, the capital of the Ukrainian SSR was moved from Kharkov to Kiev. This was Stalin's plan. The expansion of the city due to new buildings was suspended. The population was influenced by Soviet social policy, which was achieved through repression, coercion and a rapid movement towards totalitarianism, in which dissent and non-communist organizations are not allowed. Tens of thousands of people were sent to gulag camps.
In 1937, the first in the Ukrainian Republic Art School (named after T. Shevchenko) was built in Kiev. Today the building houses the History Museum.
From 1928 to 1942, three five-year plans passed (the last one was disrupted by the war), during which about 2 thousand industrial facilities were built on the territory of Ukraine, specifically in Kiev there were no such “giants” as Kryvorizhstal or KhTZ built, but this did not interfere to carry out industrialization in the city: to make roads, to electrify districts far from the center, and so on. In 1935, the first trolleybus was launched in Kiev, following the route Lev Tolstoy Square - Zagorodnaya Street.
The Great Patriotic War
For Kiev, the war turned into a series of tragic events, significant human losses and material damage. Already at dawn on June 22, 1941, Kiev was bombed by German aircraft, and on July 11, German troops approached Kiev. The Kiev defensive operation lasted 78 days. Forcing the Dnieper near Kremenchug, German troops surrounded Kiev, and on September 19 the city was taken. At the same time, more than 665 thousand soldiers and commanders were captured, 884 armored vehicles, 3718 guns and much more were captured.
On September 24, saboteurs of the NKVD carried out a series of explosions in the city, due to which a large fire began on Khreshchatyk and in the adjacent quarters. On September 29 and 30, the Nazis and Ukrainian collaborators shot Jews in Babi Yar, during these 2 days alone, more than 33 thousand people died. In total, according to Ukrainian scientists, the number of Jews shot in Babi Yar was 150 thousand (residents of Kiev, as well as other cities of Ukraine, and this number does not include young children under 3 years old, who were also killed, but did not count). The most famous collaborators of the Reichskommissariat of Ukraine were the mayors of Kiev, Alexander Ogloblin and Vladimir Bagaziy. It is also worth noting that a number of nationalist leaders saw the occupation as an opportunity to start a cultural revival, freeing themselves from Bolshevism.
On November 3, the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was blown up (according to one version - pre-laid by Soviet radio-controlled land mines). On the territory of the city, the Darnitsk and Syrets concentration camps were created, where 68 and 25 thousand prisoners, respectively, died. In the summer of 1942, a football match took place in occupied Kiev between the Start team and the national team of German combat units. Subsequently, many Kiev footballers were arrested, some of them died in a concentration camp in 1943. This event was named "Death Match". Over 100 thousand young people were sent to forced labor in Germany from Kiev. By the end of 1943, the city's population had dropped to 180,000.
During the German occupation, the Kiev city government functioned in the city.
In early November 1943, on the eve of the retreat, the German invaders began to burn Kiev. On the night of November 6, 1943, the advanced units of the Red Army, overcoming insignificant resistance from the remnants of the German army, entered the almost empty burning city. At the same time, there is a version that Stalin's desire to be in time for the Soviet festive date on November 7 led to large-scale human losses: the liberation of Kiev cost the lives of 6491 soldiers and commanders of the Red Army.
Later, in the course of the Kiev defensive operation, the attempt of the German-fascist troops to seize Kiev again was reflected (on December 23, 1943, the Wehrmacht, having stopped the attempts to attack, went on the defensive)
In total, during the hostilities in Kiev, 940 buildings of state and public institutions with an area of over 1 million square meters, 1742 communal houses with a living area of more than 1 million square meters, 3600 private houses with an area of up to half a million square meters; all bridges across the Dnieper were destroyed, the water supply system, sewerage system, and transport facilities were put out of action.
For the heroism shown during the defense, Kiev was awarded the title of a hero-city (Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of June 21, 1961; approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, May 8, 1965).
Post-war reconstruction
The first post-war years were marked by intensive restoration of the destroyed city. In January 1944, the leading state and party institutions returned to the capital of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1948, the construction of the Dashava - Kiev gas pipeline was completed, in 1949, the Darnytsky railway bridge and the Paton bridge were built, the construction of the subway began. The industrial and scientific potential of the city was developing, it was in Kiev in 1950 that the first computer in the USSR and continental Europe, MESM, was created, and in 1951 the first television center in Ukraine began broadcasting.
After the war, it was decided to rebuild Khreshchatyk, preserving the configuration of the streets, but the buildings were completely new, in the style of the "Stalinist Empire". The street is built up as a single architectural ensemble. The width of Khreshchatyk has been increased to 75 meters. The street profile has become asymmetric: the roadway is 24 meters, two sidewalks of 14 meters each, separated from the roadway by a row of trees, and a chestnut boulevard on the right side, which separates the residential area from the roadway.
Kiev remained the center for the development of Ukrainian national culture. However, already in 1946, the Moscow authorities began a new wave of ideological cleansing, found a response in the Resolutions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine directives "On distortion and errors in the coverage of the history of Ukrainian literature", "On the journal of satire and humor" Peretz "", "On the repertoire of drama theaters and measures to improve it ”and others.
Kiev during the reign of N. S. Khrushchev
Death of Stalin in 1953 year and the rise to power of Khrushchev was marked by the beginning of the "thaw" period. In the wake of the nuclear missile race and the chemicalization of the national economy, the research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR developed rapidly. In 1957, the Computing Center of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was founded, in 1960 an atomic reactor was launched at the Institute of Physics. In the same year, the first metro section was put into operation, and the city's population exceeded one million inhabitants.
The weakening of ideological pressure contributed to increased creative activity. Writers Ivan Drach, Vitaly Korotich, Lina Kostenko made their debut in Kiev; composers Valentin Silvestrov and Leonid Grabovsky; at the film studio. A. Dovzhenko created such films as "Chasing Two Hares" (Viktor Ivanov, 1961), "Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors" (Sergei Paradzhanov, 1964). However, the process of Russification began.
tion: in 1959, the Supreme Council of the Ukrainian SSR approved a law that gave parents the right to choose the language of instruction for their children.
At the same time, another atheist campaign led to the closure of a number of churches that resumed their activity during the war, the demolition of some religious buildings, the desecration of historical burials (the Lukyanovskoye Jewish and Karaite cemeteries with an area of over 25 hectares were destroyed). A negligent attitude towards technological requirements led to a large-scale Kurenyov tragedy, which was hushed up by the authorities for a long time. Under unclear circumstances, on May 24, 1964, unique materials from the funds of the State Public Library of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR were destroyed by fire.
In the 1960s urbanization processes accelerated sharply, due to which from 1959 to 1979 the total number of permanent residents of Kiev increased from 1.09 to 2.12 million people. During these years, new residential areas were built on the left bank of the Dnieper: Rusanovka, Bereznyaki, Voskresenka, Levoberezhny, Komsomolsky, Lesnoy, Raduzhny; later: Vigurovschina-Troyeshina, Kharkov, Osokorki and Poznyaki. Multi-storey hotels were built: Lybid (17 floors, 1971), Slavutich (16 floors, 1972), Kiev (20 floors, 1973), Rus (21 floors, 1979), Tourist "(26 floors, 1980).
The network of higher educational institutions grew, new cultural centers were created (in particular, the Theater of Drama and Comedy, the Youth Theater), museums, including the Museum of Folk Architecture and Life of the Ukrainian SSR, the Museum of the History of Kiev and the Museum of the History of the Great Patriotic War with a 62-meter statue of the Motherland - mother.
Kiev during the reign of Leonid I. Brezhnev
At the same time, the ideological dictatorship resumed in the mid-1960s, and Kiev became one of the centers of the dissident movement. In fact, two main directions of dissident opposition to the regime have developed. The first of them was focused on support from outside the USSR, the second - on the use of protest moods of the population within the country. The activity was based on an appeal to foreign public opinion, the use of the Western press, non-governmental organizations, foundations, relations with political and state leaders of the West.
Dissidents sent open letters to central newspapers and the Central Committee of the CPSU, produced and distributed samizdat, and staged demonstrations. The beginning of a broad dissident movement is associated with the trial of Daniel and Sinyavsky (1965), as well as with the introduction of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia (1968). In 1976, the Ukrainian Helsinki Group was founded in Kiev, which advocated for the protection of human rights under the Helsinki Agreement, signed by the USSR a year earlier.
In the field of education, there was an intensive publication of textbooks, the ten-year education system was returned. However, a demographic crisis began, the growth of the urban population continued only due to migration and urbanization processes.
Kiev did not bypass the process of stagnation in the economy: the rate of production fell, the competitiveness of the goods declined. The urban population received insufficient food, despite significant investment in agriculture. There was a staff stagnation, city officials, due to their old age, could no longer cope with their duties, which also negatively affected the well-being of the city.
Restructuring
Despite the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant on April 26, 1986, festive celebrations and demonstrations were held in Kiev, timed to May Day. Information about the incident was withheld so that there was no panic among the population. The accident caused a significant deterioration in the environmental situation in Kiev, the health of the city's residents deteriorated markedly, many foodstuffs exposed to radioactive contamination were initially carefully checked with radiometers.
In 1987, Oles Shevchenko founded the Ukrainian Cultural Club in Kiev. The club began its activity with public discussions. Later they began to resort to public shares. A demonstration was held on the anniversary of the Chernobyl accident, there were also plans to collect signatures to justify political prisoners, but the event was disrupted. The date of the end of the club's activities is considered to be the date of V. Stus's funeral.
From October 2 to October 17, 1990 the hunger strike of students on October Revolution Square (now Independence Square) and mass protests in Kiev lasted, in which students and students of technical schools and vocational schools played the main role. The government was forced to satisfy part of the demands of the protesters, which related to military service, the holding of new elections, the nationalization of property and the resignation of the Head of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR.
On August 24, 1991 in Kiev, the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR approved the Act of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine.
Capital of Ukraine
In 1991, Kiev became the capital of independent Ukraine, however, positive changes took place quite difficult in the city: a nationwide socio-economic crisis was growing, which led to an increase in unemployment and a decrease in production. Back in the 1980s, with the development of commercial relations, new organized bandit groups, the so-called reket, appeared. After that, skirmishes began to take place in the city due to the distribution of spheres of influence. This form of organized crime existed en masse until the mid-1990s.
In 1999, the Mikhailovsky Golden-Domed Monastery, destroyed by the Bolsheviks, was restored. A year later, the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was restored, and five years later - the Church of the Nativity of Christ. Simultaneously with the Assumption Cathedral, the first Kiev Ar-Rakhma mosque was built in the historical center of the city.
The metro line to Lukyanovka and the Kharkiv massif was completed, the Pevcheskoe Pole was opened. The Yuzhny railway station, built in 2001, has become an attraction of the capital's transport infrastructure. The building is decorated in Romanesque style, next to the newly planned square. Its construction helped to unload the building of the Central Station, built back in 1932.
In Kiev, shopping and entertainment centers are actively being built, part of the building of which is located underground. Popular since the 1970s, glass and concrete buildings are being reconstructed and transformed into modern office centers. Also, the restoration of old houses of the XIX - early XX centuries is being carried out in the central part of the city, the development of which is planned to be prohibited. With regard to the development of urban infrastructure, the priority is given to the expansion and renewal of the park. public transport, replacement and repair of communications, construction of new metro stations and road junctions, creation of an effective system for cleaning the city from garbage. An important aspect is also attracting investment, the construction of the headquarters of international companies and new business centers in Kiev. In addition, it is planned to solve the problem of infill development.
In 2001 the All-Ukrainian population census was carried out. According to its results, the population of Kiev amounted to more than 2.6 million people. The percentage of Ukrainians in the city was 82.2%.
November 22 - December 26, 2004- the time of the Orange Revolution on the Independence Square against falsification of the results of the presidential elections. Thanks to the action, Viktor Yushchenko became the President of Ukraine.
On July 1, 2012 in Kiev at the stadium "NSC Olimpiyskiy" took place the final of the European Football Championship 2012, in which Spain defeated Italy.
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The results of archaeological excavations indicate that already in the VI-VII centuries. on the right bank of the Dnieper there were settlements, which some researchers interpret as urban. The first dated mention in Russian chronicles refers to 860 - in connection with the description of the Rus campaign against Byzantium. By the VIII-IX centuries. include: 2 settlements - on Starokievskaya Hill (area 1.5 hectares, ditch width 12-13 m, depth - 5 m) and on Zamkovaya Hill (area 2.5 hectares); settlements - on the mountains Detinka and Vzdyhalnitsa, as well as in the historical district of Kudryavets.
Foundation of Kiev.
In the initial, not dated part of The Tale of Bygone Years, the legend about the founding of Kiev by three brothers Kiy, Schek and Khorev is given. According to the legend about the three brothers, several (at least three) "independent settlements of the 8th-10th centuries" existed on the territory of the city. According to legend, the residence of Kiya, together with the town, was located in the area of Starokievskaya Mountain (another name for the Upper City). This refers not only to the remains of the most ancient fortifications, but also a stone pagan temple, dwellings of the late V-VIII centuries, jewelry of that time. On the temple were idols made of wood with gilding. After Prince Vlyadimir Svyatoslavich adopted the Christian faith, the idols were thrown into the Dnieper. The chronicler calls Kiev at that time not even a city, but a small town ("city"), thus emphasizing its insignificant size.
Castle Hill (Horivitsa, Kiselevka, Florovskaya or Frolovskaya Gora) is a remnant of the right high bank of the Dnieper with steep slopes. Located between Starokiyevskaya mountain, Schekavitsa and the Gonchary-Kozhemyaki tract on the one hand and Kiev Podil on the other. In the IX-X centuries. on the mountain there was a suburban princely palace.
According to archaeological data, the Kiev hem as a concentration of crafts and trade arose in the 9th century, possibly at the end of this century. The emergence of Podil was closely associated with the development of crafts and Kiev bargaining. Podil became the focus of the merchant and artisan population, who often revolted against the Mountain, that is, the "city" in the proper sense of the word. Thus, along with Detinets, inhabited by princely servants and dependent people, a new quarter arose in Kiev - artisans and merchants. It is in Podol that one should look for the concentration of the handicraft and commercial life of Kiev in the days of its prosperity.
According to "" in the second half of the IX century. In Kiev, the warriors of the Varangian Rurik, Askold and Dir, reigned, liberating the glades from the Khazar dependence. At this time, Kiev is described as the main city of the land of the glades, the center of the "Polish land". In 882, Prince Oleg seizes Kiev, and it becomes the capital of the Old Russian state. The chronicler calls Kiev no longer a town, but a “city”. At the same time, there was an increase in the scale of construction on the territory of Kiev, as evidenced by archaeological materials found in the Upper Town, Podil, Kirillovskaya Gora, Pechersk. Brief, fragmentary and confusing chronicle evidence of Kiev in the 9th-10th centuries. supplemented by materials from the vast Kiev necropolis. The earliest date of the Kiev kurgans is considered to be the 9th century.
"City of Vladimir".
Small independent settlements around Kiev only at the end of the 10th century. united into one city. Certain remarks of the chronicle concerning the topography of Kiev in the 10th century leave no doubt that the city at that time was located on heights above the Dnieper and did not yet have a coastal quarter - "Podol".
During the reign of Kiev, about a third consisted of princely lands, on which the palace was located. The city of Vladimir was surrounded by an earthen rampart and a moat. From the chronicle news it becomes quite clear that the fortified place, or the "city" itself, occupied a very insignificant territory. The central entrance was the stone Gradsk (later - Sophia, Batu) gates. The territory of the city of Vladimir occupied about 10-12 hectares. The shafts of the city of Vladimir were based on wooden structures.
Church of the Tithes.
It is not known exactly when the construction of the first stone church in Kievan Rus began, but it is known that the construction was completed in 996. The church was built as a cathedral near the prince's tower - a stone northeastern palace building, the excavated part of which is located at a distance of 60 meters from the foundations Church of the Tithes. According to church tradition, it was built on the site of the murder of the Christian first martyrs Theodore and his son John.
The church was consecrated twice: upon completion of construction and in 1039 at. In the Tithe Church there was a prince's tomb, where Vladimir's Christian wife, the Byzantine princess Anna, who died in 1011, was buried, and then Vladimir himself. The remains of Princess Olga were also transferred here from Vyshgorod. In 1044, Yaroslav the Wise buried the posthumously "baptized" brothers Vladimir, Yaropolk and Oleg Drevlyansky, in the Tithe Church. During the Mongol invasion, the princely relics were hidden. In 1240, the troops of Khan Batu, taking Kiev, destroyed the church.
The heyday of Kiev under Yaroslavl the Wise.
Kiev reached its "golden age" in the middle of the 11th century under Yaroslav the Wise. The city has grown significantly in size. It was located on an area of more than 60 hectares, was surrounded by a ditch with a depth of 12 m and a high rampart 3.5 km long, 30 m wide at the base, with a total height of up to 16 m with a wooden palisade.In addition to the prince's court, on its territory were the courtyards of other sons Vladimir and other dignitaries (about ten in total). There were three entrances to the city: the Golden Gate, Lyadsky Gate, Zhidovsky Gate. It is believed that the population in Kiev during its heyday was tens of thousands. It was one of the largest European cities of its time.
Sophia Cathedral.
There is still debate about the dating of the cathedral. Various chronicles (all of them were created after the time of the construction of the cathedral) call the date of the founding of the cathedral in 1017 or 1037. St. Sophia Cathedral was a five-nave cross-domed church with 13 chapters. The cathedral was built by the architects of Constantinople, therefore such an excellent architectural solution had its own symbolism. The central high dome of the temple in Byzantine architecture has always reminded of Christ - the Head of the Church. The twelve smaller domes of the cathedral were associated with the apostles, and four of them - with the evangelists, through whom Christianity was preached to all ends of the earth. The interior of the cathedral has been preserved by the world's largest ensemble of original mosaics and frescoes of the first half of the 11th century, made by Byzantine masters. On the walls and numerous pillars of the cathedral, there are images of saints that make up a huge Christian pantheon (over 500 characters).
Kiev in the XII-XIII centuries.
The ancient Slavic capital during the reign of the Yaroslavichs and personified the lack of solidity and crowding in development, on the contrary, for the first time, the methods of designing streets and squares were applied, taking into account the legislative framework regulating the aesthetic side of housing construction. The largest district of Kiev at that time was Podil. Its area was 200 hectares. It was also famous for its fortifications, the so-called pillars, which are mentioned in the annals of the 12th century. In the center of Podol there was a chronicle "Torgovishche", and on the Gora there was Babin's torzhok, the second place of bargaining. This second, purely common name, perhaps, conceals the characteristic of trade on Babin's Torzhok as a secondary Kiev market. On Podol there were monumental religious buildings: the Church of Pirogoshcha (1131-35), Borisoglebskaya and Mikhailovskaya churches.
But Kiev was famous not only for Podol, but also for its monasteries and churches. There were 17 monasteries in Kiev, of which the largest was founded around the middle of the 11th century. Most of the Kiev monasteries were founded by princes and boyars. Such became the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, which arose in close proximity to the beloved princely village of Berestov.
According to information, in the fire of 1124, about 600 ("near 6 hundred") churches on the Mountain and on Podil were damaged. Such a figure seems almost unbelievable for one city, but it must be borne in mind that it includes numerous monastic and small private churches, as well as numerous thrones in the side-altars, etc. Most of the princes, princesses, boyars had their own personal prayer houses - goddesses. The number of churches is most likely exaggerated, but the number of churches was supposedly over a hundred.
Kiev after the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
In 1240 Kiev was taken by troops. By that time, the city had already been conquered and ruined several times during the internecine wars between the Russian princes. In 1169 the city was taken by Andrey Bogolyubsky. In 1203 Kiev was captured and burned by the Smolensk prince Rurik Rostislavovich. Also, during the wars of the 1230s, the city was besieged and ruined several times, passing from hand to hand.
The main core of the city (Mountain and Podol) at that time was within the established boundaries. After the construction of the wooden palisade, the Castle Hill turned into the town's detinets. During the capture of Kiev by Batu Khan, it was one of the strongholds of resistance to the Mongol-Tatar troops. At the foot of the mountain, in a defensive moat, many broad-fired arrows were found, used since the days of the Golden Horde. Castle Hill in the middle. XIII century becomes the center of the revived city The main number of residents at that time concentrated on Podil, here were the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin and the city bargaining.
The hem also has not lost its territory. As before, Kiev actively traded, artisans lived in it. During the late Middle Ages, it even became to some extent a synonym for Kiev. In the documents of that time, it is called either the “lower city”, then the “new city”, or simply Kyivpodol. Of the three Podolsk churches known from the chronicles, two continued to exist even after 1240. The Church of the Dormition of the Theotokos Pirogoschei stood at the merchant site, it was a city cathedral, and the city archive was kept here.
The Borisoglebskaya church was devastated in 1482, her books and among them the church memorial were burned, and the priest was captured, from which he fled a few days later and restored the memorial from memory. But the church itself was not completely rebuilt after that. At the beginning of the 17th century. its remains were dismantled.
Ancient Kiev stone structures were not destroyed in 1240 (except for the Tithe Church). They were destroyed for quite a long time due to the lack of sufficient economic resources, funds necessary to maintain the existence of any monument. Such destruction from dilapidation or some kind of construction mistakes were not uncommon. For example, in 1105 “the top of Saint Andrew” - the church founded only in 1086 by Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich - fell off.
The Golden Gate was also not destroyed by Batu Khan. They remained the main entrance to Kiev in the middle of the 17th century. The time of the destruction of the gate Church of the Annunciation remains unclear.
Throughout the XIII century. Kiev continued to remain the traditional ecclesiastical and administrative center of Russia, and therefore continued to influence the political and ideological life of the country. In Kiev, bishops were ordained to various principalities of Rus. So, in 1273, Archimandrite Serapion was made Bishop of Vladimir. In 1289, Bishop Andrey came to Kiev for ordination from Tver. In 1288-1289. in St. Sophia Cathedral, Metropolitan Maxim ordained Bishops James and Roman, respectively, in Vladimir and Rostov. Only in 1299 did the Metropolitan transfer his see to Vladimir.
Kievan Rus - one of the largest states of medieval Europe - took shape in the 9th century. as a result of the long internal development of the East Slavic tribes. Its historical core was the Middle Dnieper region, where new social phenomena characteristic of class society arose very early.
Due to the fact that the center of this powerful state for several centuries was Kiev, in the historical literature it received the name of Kievan Rus.
Kievan Rus played an outstanding role in the history of the Slavic peoples. The formation of feudal relations and the completion of the formation of a single Old Russian state had a positive effect on the ethnic development of the East Slavic tribes, which gradually formed into a single Old Russian nationality. It was based on a common territory, a common language, a common culture, and close economic ties. Throughout the entire period of the existence of Kievan Rus, the ancient Russian nationality, which was the common ethnic basis of the three fraternal East Slavic peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, developed through further consolidation.
The unification of all East Slavic tribes in a single state contributed to their socio-economic, political and cultural development, significantly strengthened them in the fight against a common enemy. The cultural values created by the genius of the ancient Russian people have stood the test of time. They became the basis of the national cultures of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, and the best of them entered the treasury of world culture.
In the international arena, the Old Russian state occupied one of the leading places. It maintained broad economic, political and cultural ties with many countries of the East and West. Rus' contacts with Poland, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Armenia, Georgia, Central Asia, the countries of Western Europe - France, England, Scandinavia, the Byzantine Empire, etc. were especially close. The existence of Kievan Rus covers the period from the 9th century. to the 30s of the XII century.
It is known that the first words of Nestor's historical work were the words about the origin of Rus: "Where did the Russian land come from?" There are about twenty different answers to this question in the literature, mutually exclusive. According to BA Rybakov, “the Russians were considered by the Varangians, the Lithuanians, and the Baltic Slavs, and the Finns, and the Slavs, and the Central Asian Aors, and others”. The main struggle in historiography on this issue, which does not stop today, was between the Normanists and their opponents. The duration of disputes about the origin of Russia was largely due to contradictions in sources, an abundance of speculation and conjectures among the ancient authors themselves. These sources contain direct indications that the Rus are Varangians, and equally direct evidence of their Slavism. The Russians are sometimes called nomads, then they say that they are from a tribe of Slavs, then they oppose them to the Slavs, etc. Opinions on this matter are diverse, obviously, historians will continue to work in this area, express their hypotheses and various judgments. However, it should be borne in mind that in Nestor's Tale of Bygone Years, the use of the words "Rus", "Russian land" is associated with the concept of the Eastern Slavs, a single Russian nationality, a single Russian state. The same concept is characteristic of the later judgments of the chroniclers. On this "Russian land" there were several principalities at war with each other: Kievskoe, Pereyaslavskoe, the patrimony of the Yuryevichs, the Chernigov-Seversk patrimony of the Olgovichs, etc. Of the various judgments about the concept of "Russian land", the point of view of Academician B. A. Rybakov seems to us the most acceptable and believable. Russian land IX - XIV centuries. in the broadest sense of the word, it is an area of the Old Russian nationality with a single language, a single culture, and a temporary single state border. The beginning of the state of Rus is associated with the founding of the city of Kiev in the land of the meadows. Even in ancient times, Kiev was considered the "mother of Russian cities". The founder of Kiev, as the chronicler Nestor notes, was Kiy - a historical figure.
Kiy is the Slavic prince of the Middle Dnieper region, the ancestor of the Kiev princes. He was known to the emperor of Byzantium himself, who invited Kyi back in the 5th century. to Constantinople and sought to attract him as a military ally.
Another point of view, set forth in the book "History of the Fatherland: People, Ideas, Solutions. Essays on the History of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries", is also of some interest in these subjects. In the article by S. V. Dumik and A. A. Turilov, "Where did the Russian land come from," you can find interesting judgments on these issues, with which you can agree, and you can argue. The authors write that we must be aware that the origin of the country's name is by no means decisive for assessing the genesis of its statehood. There are many examples in history when a people borrows their name from a completely different ancestor from which they inherit language and material culture, and the combinations here can be very different. Slavic-speaking Bulgarians bear the name of a Turkic tribe, in the 7th century. who created the first Bulgarian kingdom in the Balkans and disappeared without a trace among the Slavic tribes that make up the majority of its population. At the same time, the authors note, in their material culture, the presence of a third ethnos is very noticeable - the ancient Thracians, Hellenized during the Roman Empire.
The unification of the East Slavic lands into the Old Russian state was prepared by internal socio-economic processes.
But this happened, according to the authors, as a result of the campaign of Prince Oleg together with other tribes to Kiev in 882 with the active participation of the Varangian squad. The relatively easy approval of Oleg's power in the Dnieper region indicates that by this time the internal conditions for unification were ripe. What role did the Vikings play in this? Undoubtedly very important. It's not about some kind of organizational and state qualities of the Scandinavians. As a confirmation of this position, one can draw attention to the fact that in Iceland and Greenland, the descendants of the Normans who settled there in the Middle Ages, left to themselves, did not create states at all. But in Eastern Europe, the appearance of the Varangian squads, apparently, noticeably accelerated the process of state formation. They were a consolidating element and at the first stage constituted the support of the Grand Duke, their representative. Basically Slavic (together with the Baltic, Finno-Ugric tribes), the ancient Russian state was not a purely Varangian "brainchild". However, the elements of active participation of the Varangians in the life of the Slavs contributed to the strengthening of this process.
Established by the IX century. The ancient Russian feudal state (also called by historians Kievan Rus) arose as a result of an extremely long process of the split of society into classes that took place among the Slavs during the 1st millennium AD. e.
The political system of Ancient Russia in the 9th - 10th centuries. characterized as an early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state was the Kiev prince, who was called the Grand Duke. The prince ruled with the help of the council of other princes and warriors. Somewhat later, this form of government entered the history of Russia under the name Boyar Duma. The prince had a significant military force, which included the fleet, which operated both on the rivers and on the Black Sea. Legal norms developed in the 10th century played an important role in strengthening the state. The norms of early feudal law were reflected in the so-called "Ancient Truth", published at the beginning of the 11th century. Prince Yaroslav the Wise, which reflected the main legal provisions governing many aspects of life.
Russia at that time was a vast state, which already united half of the East Slavic tribes. The Russian tribal union, which was turning into a feudal state, subjugated neighboring Slavic tribes and equipped distant campaigns. The literature also contains information about the Russians who lived at that time on the Black Sea coast, about their campaigns to Constantinople and about the baptism of part of the Russians in the 60s. IX century With all the variety of judgments and points of view on the origin and formation of the ancient Russian state, the main thing is still obvious: the Russian state was formed independently of the Varangians.
Simultaneously with the Russian in the same period, other Slavic states arose - the Bulgarian kingdom, the Velikomorov state and other states. Kievan Rus is the first stable large state association of the Eastern Slavs during the formation of feudalism. It occupied a vast territory from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from the Western Bug to the Volga. A number of Slavic tribal unions of the Middle Dnieper region were under the rule of the Kiev prince, and then several Lithuanian-Latvian tribes of the Baltic and numerous Finno-Ugric tribes of northeastern Europe were subordinated to him. The center of the union was the Polyan tribe, which in the second half of the 9th century. was the most powerful economically.
Kievan Rus was an early feudal monarchy. The state was headed by the Grand Duke. He had with him a council (duma) of the most noble princes and senior warriors (boyars) who acted as governors, as well as a management apparatus that was in charge of collecting tribute and taxes, court cases, and collecting fines. In this apparatus, the duties of officials were performed by junior warriors - swordsmen (bailiffs), virniks (collectors of fines), etc. during hostilities, the people's militia.
To exercise power over the population, expand the borders of the state and protect it from external enemies, the Grand Duke had significant military forces. They consisted primarily of the squad of the Grand Duke himself, as well as of the troops of the vassal princes, who also had their own squads.
The princes of certain lands and other large, medium and small feudal lords were in vassal dependence on the grand duke. They were obliged to supply warriors to the Grand Duke, to appear at his request with a retinue. At the same time, these vassals themselves fully exercised the functions of government in their estates and the grand-ducal governors did not have the right to interfere in their internal affairs.
In the early feudal society of Kievan Rus, two main classes were distinguished - peasants (primarily smerds) and feudal lords. Both classes were not homogeneous in composition. The deaths were divided into free members of the community and dependent. Free smerds had their own subsistence economy, paid tribute to princes and boyars, and at the same time were a source for the feudal lords to replenish the category of dependent people. The dependent population consisted of purchases, rank-and-file, outcasts, forced laborers and slaves. Procurement was the name given to those who became addicted by taking a kupa (debt). Those who fell into dependence after the conclusion of a number (agreement) became ryadoviches. Outcasts are impoverished people from communities, and forced laborers are freed slaves. The slaves were completely powerless and were in fact in the position of slaves.
The class of feudal lords consisted of representatives of the grand ducal house with the grand duke at the head, princes of tribes or lands, boyars, as well as senior warriors.
Somewhat later, in the second half of the 10th and especially in the 11th centuries. this emerging ruling class was joined by the upper clergy, who also exploited the peasants and townspeople. The interests of the feudal lords were protected by the laws of the state, power and military force were on their side. But the peasants did not remain passive to feudal oppression. In the history of that period, many uprisings of peasants and townspeople are known, especially in the 11th - early 12th centuries. The largest of them were during this period of the uprising in Kiev.
The main branches of production in Kievan Rus at that time were agriculture and handicrafts.
If we bear in mind the socio-economic system of Russia of that period, first of all, one should pay attention to the state of agriculture. The basis of agriculture in the period of early feudalism was agriculture of various types. During this period, farming techniques were significantly improved. Yet, on the whole, agricultural technology was rather archaic. In agriculture, an important place was occupied by the peasant community, which consisted of both one large massif and a number of scattered settlements, which included both small and large peasant farms that jointly cultivated the land, were linked by mutual responsibility, mutual responsibility for payment tribute, etc. Peasant communities existed in Russia throughout the history of feudalism.
The number of such communities gradually decreased and subsequently they remained only in the far north of the country. Feudal relations expanded over time due to the enslavement of personally free communes. Feudal land ownership arose in the process of property inequality in connection with the transfer of a significant part of the arable land of the communes. At the same time, the appearance of feudal castles with their reserves of grain and other products was to a certain extent a progressive phenomenon, since it created certain reserves in case of crop failure or war. The main productive unit of feudal society was the peasantry. The landowners, or feudal lords, of Ancient Rus, as well as in Western European countries, differed in the amount of land they owned, dependent people and military servants. After the adoption of Christianity (which will be discussed below), church and monastic land ownership also becomes a special type of land ownership. With the development of feudal relations, the struggle of the peasants against the ruling class intensified. For many areas of Ancient Russia X - XII centuries. the peasants' dissatisfaction and their open actions were characteristic.
Along with the peasant community, an important element of feudal society was the city, which was a fortified center of handicraft production and trade.
At the same time, the cities were important administrative centers, in which wealth and large food supplies were concentrated, which were brought here by the feudal lords. The largest cities of Ancient Rus were Kiev, Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov and others. The cities founded by the princes usually retained the names of these princes: Yaroslavl, Izyaslav, Vladimir, Konstantinov. Many of these names of cities have survived to our time.
The Russian craft of that time, in terms of its technical and artistic level, was not inferior to the craft of the advanced countries of Western Europe. In the same years, the growth in the number of cities began. More than 220 cities were mentioned in the annals (up to the 13th century). Interestingly, even in Scandinavia, Russia was called "Gardaria" - the country of cities.
Domestic and foreign trade occupied a large place in the history of Ancient Rus. Foreign trade has become especially active since the end of the 9th century. Russian squads mastered the paths to the most advanced countries of that time - to Byzantium, the Caucasus, Central Asia and other parts of the outside world.
The structure of the church hierarchy has developed in the following way. At the head of the church was the Metropolitan of Kiev, who was appointed from Constantinople or by the Kiev prince himself with the subsequent election of bishops by the council. In the large cities of Russia, bishops were in charge of all the practical affairs of the church. The metropolitan and bishops owned lands, villages, cities. The princes donated almost a tenth of their tribute and quitrent for the maintenance of churches. In addition, the church had its own court and legislation, which gave the right to intervene in almost all aspects of the life of its parishioners. One of the strongest organizations of the church were monasteries, which generally played an important role in the history of medieval states, including in the ancient Russian state. All this came to Russia with the strengthening of the influence of Christianity.
The baptism of Vladimir is a turning point in the Christianization of Kievan Rus, but the Christianization itself did not take place immediately, it stretched, as S. V. Bakhrushin noted, for a number of decades. Under Vladimir, the princely family and the princely squad were baptized. In large cities, such as Kiev, Novgorod, etc., residents were driven into the river and, as noted in one of the ancient legends that have come down to us, "they were flocking into the river, like herds," and the fear of the one who commanded was baptized. " Despite the measures taken by the ruling class, a significant part of the Russian population in the XI century. remained pagan. The introduction of Christianity met with active resistance from a large number of the population. The introduction of Christianity started by Vladimir in the 10th century. was actively continued and. basically completed by Prince Yaroslav already in the XI century. The final formation of the church as an organization also belongs to the time of Yaroslav's reign.
The change of religious cults was accompanied by the destruction of images of gods once revered by pagans, the construction of churches in places where pagan idols and temples stood. The conversion to Christianity was objectively of great and progressive importance, since it contributed to the early withering away of the remnants of the clan system. This primarily concerned marriage law. In the highest circles, polygamy prevailed. For example, Prince Vladimir had five "led", that is, legitimate wives, not counting the concubines. The Christian Church from the very beginning contributed to the elimination of the old marriage forms and consistently carried this line into practice. And if already in the XI century. Monogamous marriage received final recognition in Russia, then this was a considerable merit of the Christian Church.
By speeding up the process of eliminating the remnants of the clan system, Christianity contributed to the acceleration of the development of the feudal mode of production in Ancient Rus. In Byzantium, the church was a large feudal institution and landowner. With the adoption of Christianity, these same methods were introduced into Kievan Rus, where church institutions, along with princely ones, create large land ownership, concentrating large land holdings in their hands. The progressive side of the Christian Church's activity was its desire to eliminate the elements of slave labor that remained in some areas of Ancient Russia. To a certain extent, the Christian Church also fought against the illegal enslavement of people. The influence of the Byzantine clergy was also reflected in the development of feudal legislation in Russia. Christianity played an important role in the ideological substantiation and thereby in strengthening the power of the Kiev princes; the church assigns to the Kiev prince all the attributes of Christian emperors. Many coins, minted after Greek patterns, depict princes in Byzantine imperial attire.
Baptism also influenced the cultural life of Russia, the development of technology, crafts, etc. From Byzantium, Kievan Rus borrowed the first experiments in minting coins. A noticeable influence of baptism manifested itself in the artistic field. Greek artists created new masterpieces in the newly converted country, which were equated with the best examples of Byzantine art, for example, St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, built by Yaroslav in 1037. At present, it is a large museum. Anyone who has been to Kiev could not help but admire this masterpiece of ancient Russian art. The example of architectural art is still built in 1050 St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod. Painting on boards also penetrated from Byzantium to Kiev. In connection with baptism, samples of Greek sculpture appeared in Kievan Rus. Baptism also left a noticeable mark in the field of education and publishing. As Academician M.N. Tikhomirov argued, book education in Russia began to spread with the introduction of Christianity. The Slavic alphabet became widespread in Russia at the beginning of the 10th century. Initially, the Slavic alphabet was represented by two alphabets: verb and Cyrillic. Both of these alphabets have been known in Russia since the beginning of the 10th century. Writing in Ancient Russia developed on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet, letters from which entered the modern Russian alphabet. The rapid development of Russian writing took place in the 11th century, after the recognition of Christianity as the official religion in Russia. The need for church books in the Slavic language increased sharply, as Christianity penetrated not only the city, but also the countryside.
The adoption of Christianity in Russia as a state religion was determined by a number of reasons. Appearance in the 7th - 9th centuries. class early feudal system and state religion was the result of interconnected processes. Formation of local reigns and the creation on their basis in the 9th century. the ancient Russian state with its center in Kiev demanded, in turn, changes in the ideological field, in religion. An attempt to oppose Christianity with a reformed pagan cult did not lead to success. Russia in the 9th - 10th centuries. was traditionally associated with Constantinople - Constantinople and with the Slavs in Central Europe and the Balkan Peninsula, which was also in close contact with Byzantium. These ties largely determined the church orientation of Rus towards the Eastern Christian world and towards the See of Constantinople. The princes of Kiev could choose the direction of Christianity that best suited the political and cultural needs of the state.
In the history of Ancient Russia, Christianity was a progressive phenomenon. Borrowed from the Greeks and at the same time not completely dissociated from the West, it ultimately turned out not to be Byzantine or Roman, but Russian. In the history of Russia, the Russian Church played a complex and multifaceted role. However, its positive role was that it, as an organization, objectively helped to strengthen the young Russian statehood in the era of rapid progressive development of feudalism.
Kievan Rus pursued an active foreign policy. Its rulers established diplomatic relations with neighboring countries. This was the time when the foundations of ancient Russian statehood were laid, cities and the culture of ancient Russia developed. It is no coincidence that in ancient times Kiev was called “the mother of Russian cities”.
Ancient Russia, and later an early feudal state, had active ties with the outside world. The nature of these ties and relationships with neighboring peoples changed depending on the specific historical situation in which the state was in those years. The external situation exerted a certain influence on the internal life of the state. Relations with individual states were aggravated for a period, then improved. In many ways, the nature of foreign policy was determined by the consequences of the hostilities waged by the ancient Russian state. Russia fought against enemy squads, Byzantium, Khazaria and other states. The fight against external danger was one of the important factors that contributed to the formation of an early feudal state with its center in Kiev. On the other hand, during this period, the ancient Russian princes, in turn, also strove to expand the territory of the state and conquer new trade routes. This was of great importance for the young, developing state.
At the end of the 9th and 10th centuries. Russian troops made a number of campaigns on the coast of the Caspian Sea and in the steppe of the Caucasus.
The neighbor of the Old Russian state was the Khazar Kaganate, located on the Lower Volga and in the Azov region.
The Khazars were a semi-nomadic people of Turkic origin. Their capital, Itil, located in the Volga delta, became a major trade center. During the heyday of the Khazar state, some Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars.
The Khazar Kaganate held in its hands key points on the most important trade routes: the mouths of the Volga and Don, the Kerch Strait, the crossing between the Volga and Don. The customs offices established there collected significant trade duties. High customs payments adversely affected the development of trade in Ancient Rus.
Sometimes the Khazar kagans (rulers of the state) were not content with trade fees, detained and robbed Russian merchant caravans returning from the Caspian Sea. In the second half of the X century. a systematic struggle of Russian squads with the Khazar Kaganate began. In 965. the Kiev prince Svyatoslav defeated the Khazar state.
After that, the Lower Don was again inhabited by the Slavs, and the former Khazar fortress Sarkel (the Russian name Belaya Vezha) became the center of this territory. On the shore of the Kerch Strait, a Russian principality was formed with its center in Tmutarakan.
This city with a large navy became an outpost of Russia on the Black Sea. At the end of the X century. Russian squads made a number of campaigns on the Caspian coast and in the steppe regions of the Caucasus.
Relations between Russia and Byzantium were of great importance during this period. Russian princes tried to gain a foothold in the Black Sea region and in the Crimea. By that time, several Russian cities had already been built there. Byzantium, on the other hand, sought to limit the sphere of influence of Rus in the Black Sea region. For these purposes, she used the militant nomads and the Christian church in the fight against Russia. This circumstance complicated relations between Russia and Byzantium, their frequent clashes brought alternate success to one or the other side.
The development of the ancient Russian state took place in cooperation with the peoples of neighboring countries. One of the first places among them was occupied by the then powerful Byzantine Empire. Russian-Byzantine relations in the 9th - 10th centuries were complex. They included peaceful economic relations, political and cultural ties, and acute military clashes. Despite its power, Byzantium was constantly invaded by the Slavic princes and their warriors. At the same time, Byzantine diplomacy sought to turn Russia into a state dependent on Byzantium. For these purposes, she decided to use the Christianization of Russia.
Russian squads, sailing the Black Sea on ships, raided the coastal Byzantine cities, and Prince Oleg even managed to capture the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople.
The chronicler tells how Oleg, having gathered many Varangians, Slovens, Krivichi, Mary, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Polyans, Northerners, Vyatichi, Croats, Dulebs, Tivertsy, moved to Byzantium "on horseback and by ship". The Greeks closed the harbor with a chain and locked themselves in Constantinople. Oleg plundered the city district and did "a lot of evil", and then put the ships on wheels, unrolled the sails and set off with a favorable wind towards the city. The Greeks were horrified at the sight of the advancing Russian army and asked for peace, promising Oleg to pay the tribute he wanted. Oleg stopped the army. Negotiations began, which later ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty between Russia and Byzantium.
In the second half of the 10th century. a more active Russian-Byzantine rapprochement begins. Going towards this rapprochement, the Byzantine emperors at the same time counted on using the Russian squads in the war, with their neighbors.
A new stage in relations between Russia and Byzantium and with other neighboring peoples falls on the time of the reign of Svyatoslav, who pursued an active foreign policy. He clashed with the powerful Khazar Kaganate, the defeat of which in 965 led to the formation of Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula of the Tmutarakan principality and the liberation of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians from the kaganate's rule, who then formed their own state.
The fall of the Khazar Kaganate and the advance of Rus in the Black Sea region caused concern among Byzantium. In an effort to weaken Russia and Danube Bulgaria, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus II Phoca invited Svyatoslav to make a trip to the Balkans. The plans of the Byzantines did not come true. Svyatoslav won a victory in Bulgaria and captured the city of Pereslavets on the Danube. Since this outcome was undesirable for the Byzantines, they started a war with Russia. Although the Russian squads fought bravely, the forces of the Byzantines far outnumbered them. In 971, a peace treaty was concluded: Svyatoslav's squad was given the opportunity to return to Russia with all its weapons, and Byzantium was satisfied only with the promise of Russia not to make attacks. However, the events did not end there.
To weaken the Russian influence in Bulgaria, Byzantium uses the Pechenegs. Initially, the Pechenegs roamed between the Volga and the Aral Sea, and then, under pressure from the Khazars, crossed the Volga and occupied the northern Black Sea region. On the Dnieper rapids, the Pechenegs attacked the Russian army, Svyatoslav died in battle.
The next stage of Russian-Byzantine relations falls on the time of the reign of Vladimir and is associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia. The Byzantine emperor Vasily II turned to Vladimir with a request to help in suppressing the uprising of the commander Barda Phocas, who seized Asia Minor and, threatening Constantinople, claimed the imperial throne. The squad of Vladimir helped to suppress the uprising. However, the Byzantine emperor was in no hurry to fulfill his promise to marry Vladimir to his sister Anna. Meanwhile, this marriage had an important political significance for Russia. The fact is that the Byzantine emperors occupied the highest place in the feudal hierarchy of Europe at that time, and marriage to a Byzantine princess significantly raised the international prestige of the Russian state. To achieve the fulfillment of the treaty, Vladimir began military operations against Byzantium. Having defeated Byzantium, he achieved not only the fulfillment of the treaty, but also the independence of his foreign policy from the Byzantine emperor. Russia has become on a par with the largest Christian powers of medieval Europe. This position of Russia was reflected in the dynastic ties of the Russian princes. In those years, Ancient Russia with the German Empire and other European states were united by dynastic ties.
In the IX century. most of the Slavic tribes merged into a territorial union called "Russian land". The center of the unification was Kiev, where the semi-legendary dynasty of Kiy, Dir and Askold ruled. In 882, the two largest political centers of the ancient Slavs - Kiev and Novgorod, united under the rule of Kiev, forming the Old Russian state. From the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 11th, this state included the territories of other Slavic tribes - the Drevlyans, the Northerners, the Radimichi, the Tivertsy, the Vyatichi. At the center of the new state formation was the Polyan tribe. The ancient Russian state became a kind of federation of tribes, in its form it was an early feudal monarchy.
The territory of the Kiev state was concentrated around several political centers that were once tribal. In the second half of the XI - the beginning of the XII century. within the boundaries of Kievan Rus, fairly stable principalities began to form. As a result of the merger of the East Slavic tribes during the period of Kievan Rus, the ancient Russian nationality was gradually formed, which was characterized by a certain commonality of language, territory and mental make-up, manifested in a common culture.
The ancient Russian state was one of the largest European states. Kievan Rus pursued an active foreign policy. Its rulers established diplomatic relations with neighboring countries. The struggle of Russia against the raids of nomads was of great importance for the security of the countries of both Western Asia and Europe. Trade relations of Rus were widespread. Russia maintained political, commercial and cultural relations with Byzantium, and also established ties with France and England. Dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes testify to the international importance of Russia. Feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society. The formation in the Old Russian state of large landholdings - estates - in the conditions of the domination of natural economy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, whose economic ties were limited to the nearest district.
The emerging class of feudal landowners strove to establish various forms of economic and legal dependence of the agricultural population. But in the XI - XII centuries. the existing class antagonisms were mainly local in nature; the local authorities were quite sufficient for the resolution, and they did not require state intervention. These conditions made the large landowners, the boyar-patrimonials, almost completely economically and socially independent from the central government. The local boyars saw no need to share their income with the great Kiev prince and actively supported the rulers of individual principalities in the struggle for economic and political independence. Outwardly, the disintegration of Kievan Rus looked like a division of the territory of Kievan Rus between various members of the ruined princely family. According to the established tradition, local thrones were occupied, as a rule, only by the descendants of the house of Rurik. The process of the onset of feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, we can talk about the historical progressiveness of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of the economy and culture.
Sources of
The chronicles remain the most important sources on the history of medieval Russia. Since the end of the XII century. their circle is expanding significantly. With the development of individual lands and principalities, regional annals spread.
The largest corpus of sources is made up of act materials - letters written on a variety of occasions. Diplomas were granted, deposit, in-line, deed of sale, spiritual, truce, charter, etc., depending on the purpose. With the development of the feudal-local system, the number of current clerical documentation increases (scribes, sentinels, discharge, genealogical books, unsubscriptions, petitions, memorials, court lists). Act and clerical materials are valuable sources on the socio - economic history of Russia.
Russia during the period of feudal fragmentation (XII - XIII centuries)
1. Reasons
Feudal fragmentation is a new form of state. -political organization
From the second third of the 12th century, a period of feudal fragmentation began in Russia, which lasted until the end of the 15th century, through which all the countries of Europe and Asia passed. Feudal fragmentation as a new form of state political organization, which replaced the early feudal Kiev monarchy, corresponded to a developed feudal society.
a) Change of the early feudal monarchy
It was no coincidence that feudal republics were formed within the framework of former tribal unions, the ethnic and regional stability of which was supported by natural boundaries and cultural traditions.
b) Division of labor
As a result of the development of the productive forces and the social division of labor, the old tribes. centers and new cities turned into economic and political centers. With the "oknyazhenie" "charm" of communal lands, the peasants were drawn into the system of feudal dependence.
The old tribal nobility turned into zemstvo boyars and, together with other categories of feudal lords, formed corporations of land owners.
c) Strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars
Within the limits of small states-principalities, feudal lords could effectively defend their interests, which were little considered in Kiev.
Selecting and securing suitable princes at their "tables", the local nobility forced them to abandon the view of "tables" as temporary feeding for them.
d) The first strife
After the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich in 1015, a long war began between his numerous sons, who ruled separate parts of Russia. The instigator of the strife was Svyatopolk the Damned, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb. In internecine wars, the princes-brothers brought to Russia either the Pechenegs, or the Poles, or the mercenary detachments of the Varangians. In the end, the winner was Yaroslav the Wise, who divided Russia (along the Dnieper) with his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky from 1024 to 1036, and then, after the death of Mstislav, became an "autocrat".
e) Russia in the middle of the XI century.
After the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, a significant number of sons, relatives and cousins of the Grand Duke turned out to be in Russia.
Each of them had this or that "fatherland", their own domain, and each, to the best of his ability, sought to increase the domain or exchange it for a richer one. This created a tense situation in all the princely centers and in Kiev itself. Researchers sometimes call the time after the death of Yaroslav the time of feudal fragmentation, but this cannot be recognized as correct, since real feudal fragmentation occurs when separate lands crystallize, large cities grow, heading these lands, when each sovereign principality consolidates its own princely dynasty. All this appeared in Russia only after 1132, and in the second half of the 11th century. everything was changeable, fragile and unstable. The princely strife ruined the people and the squad, shattered the Russian state, but did not introduce any new political form.
f) Strife at the end of the XI century.
In the last quarter of the XI century. in difficult conditions of internal crisis and the constant threat of external danger from the Polovtsian khans, the princely strife acquired the character of a national disaster. The object of contention was the grand-princely throne: Svyatoslav Yaroslavich expelled his elder brother Izyaslav from Kiev, "laying the foundation for the expulsion of the brothers."
The strife became especially terrible after the son of Svyatoslav Oleg entered into an alliance with the Polovtsians and repeatedly led the Polovtsian hordes to Russia for a selfish decision between the princes' wars.
Oleg's enemy was the young Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, who reigned in the border Pereyaslavl. Monomakh managed to convene a princely congress in Lyubech in 1097, the task of which was to secure the "fatherland" to the princes, to condemn the instigator of strife Oleg and, if possible, eliminate future strife in order to resist the Polovtsy with united forces. However, the princes were powerless to establish order not only in the entire Russian land, but even within their princely circle of relatives and cousins and nephews. Immediately after the congress, a new strife broke out in Lyubech, which lasted for several years. The only force that, under those conditions, could really stop the spinning of princes and princely quarrels, was the boyars - the main body of the young and progressive then feudal class. Boyar program at the end of the XI and the beginning of the XII century. consisted in limiting princely tyranny and outrages of princely officials, in the elimination of strife and in the general defense of Russia from the Polovtsy. Coinciding in these points with the aspirations of the townspeople, this program reflected the interests of the whole people and was undoubtedly progressive.
In 1093, after the death of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, the Kievites invited the insignificant Turov prince Svyatopolk to the throne, but they miscalculated significantly, since he turned out to be a bad commander and a greedy ruler.
Svyatopolk died in 1113; his death was the signal for a widespread uprising in Kiev. The people fell upon the courts of the princely rulers and usurers. The Kiev boyars, bypassing the princely seniority, chose the Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned successfully until his death in 1125. After him, the unity of Rus was still held under his son Mstislav (1125-1132), and then, in the words of the chronicler, " Russian land "into separate independent reigns.
- 2. Essence
- a) Weakening of the country on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion
The loss of the state unity of Russia weakened and divided its forces in the face of the growing threat of foreign aggression and, above all, of the steppe nomads. All this predetermined the gradual decline of the Kiev land from the 13th century. For some time, under the Monamakh and Mstislav, Kiev rose again. These princes were able to rebuff the Polovtsian nomads.
b) The collapse of a single power
After the death of Mstislav, instead of a single state, about a dozen independent lands arose: Galician, Chernigov, Smolensk, Novgorod and others.