1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SENSOR SYSTEMS A sensory system is a part of the nervous system that perceives information external to the brain, transfers it to the brain and analyzes it. The sensory system consists of perceiving elements - receptors, nerve pathways that transmit

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2. THEORY OF FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS 2.1. What is a system? The term "system" is usually used to indicate the concentration, organization of a group of elements and its demarcation from other groups and elements. Many definitions of the system were given, which

7.1. Historical determination of the level organization of systems. Many authors have developed ideas about the patterns of development in connection with the ideas of level organization (see [Anokhin, 1975, 1980; Rogovin, 1977; Aleksandrov, 1989, 1995, 1997]). The development process is seen as

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Chapter 6 Features of production of biological systems 6.1. General concepts, terms, definitions In ecology, it is customary to call the amount of living matter of all groups of plant and animal organisms biomass. It is the resultant value of all processes.

8.5. The unity of the body's regulatory systems Traditionally, signaling molecules were divided into three groups, according to the "range" of the signal. Hormones are carried by the blood throughout the body, mediators - within the synapse, histohormones - within neighboring cells. but

INTRODUCTION

I. GLANDS OF INTERNAL AND MIXED SECRETION

II. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system functions

Glandular endocrine system

Diffuse endocrine system

Diffuse endocrine system composition

Gastrointestinal tract

Atria of the heart

Nervous system

Thymus gland (thymus)

Other hormone-producing tissues and scattered endocrine cells

Regulation of the endocrine system

III. Hormones

Important human hormones

IV. ROLE OF HORMONES IN SUBSTANCE METHOD, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY

Thyroid

Parathyroid glands

Pancreas

Diseases of the pancreas

Pancreatic hormone insulin and diabetes mellitus

Adrenal glands

Ovaries

CONCLUSION

LITERATURE AND INTERNET SOURCES

INTRODUCTION

In the human body, there are glands of external secretion that secrete their products into the ducts or outside, glands of internal secretion that secrete hormones directly into the blood, and glands of mixed secretion: some of their cells secrete secretions into the ducts or outward, the other part secretes hormones directly into the blood. The endocrine system includes glands of internal and mixed secretion that secrete hormones - biological regulators. They act in negligible doses on cells, tissues and organs that are sensitive to them. At the end of their action, hormones are destroyed, allowing other hormones to act. Endocrine glands in different age periods act with different intensities. The growth and development of the body is precisely what ensures the work of a number of endocrine glands. Those. the set of these glands is a kind of regulatory system of the human body.

In my work, I am going to consider the following questions:

· What specific glands of internal and mixed secretion regulate the vital activity of the organism?

· What hormones do these glands produce?

· What regulatory effect and how does this or that gland, this or that hormone?

I. GLANDS OF INTERNAL AND MIXED SECRETION

We know that in the human body there are such (sweat and salivary) glands that remove their products - secrets into the cavity of an organ or outside. They are referred to as the glands of external secretion. In addition to salivary glands, excretory glands include gastric, liver, sweat, sebaceous and other glands.

The endocrine glands (see Fig. 1), in contrast to the endocrine glands, do not have ducts. Their secrets go straight to the bloodstream. They contain substances-regulators - hormones with great biological activity. Even if their concentration in the blood is negligible, certain target organs can be switched on or off from the work, the activity of these organs can be strengthened or weakened. Having completed its task, the hormone is destroyed, and the kidneys remove it from the body. An organ lacking hormonal regulation cannot function normally. The endocrine glands function throughout a person's life, but their activity in different age periods is not the same.

The endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands.

There are also glands of mixed secretion. Some of their cells release hormones directly into the bloodstream, the other part - into the ducts or outside of substances characteristic of the glands of external secretion.

Glands of internal and mixed secretion belong to the endocrine system.

II. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system- a system for regulating the activity of internal organs by means of hormones secreted by endocrine cells directly into the blood, or diffusing through the intercellular space into neighboring cells.

The endocrine system is divided into the glandular endocrine system (or glandular apparatus), in which the endocrine cells are brought together to form the endocrine gland, and the diffuse endocrine system. The endocrine gland produces glandular hormones, which include all steroid hormones, hormones thyroid gland and many peptide hormones. The diffuse endocrine system is represented by endocrine cells scattered throughout the body that produce hormones called aglandular - (with the exception of calcitriol) peptides. There are endocrine cells in almost any tissue of the body.

Endocrine system functions

• Takes part in the humoral (chemical) regulation of body functions and coordinates the activity of all organs and systems.
• Provides the preservation of the body's homeostasis under changing environmental conditions.
• Together with the nervous and immune systems, it regulates
• growth,
• development of the body,
• its sexual differentiation and reproductive function;
• takes part in the processes of formation, use and conservation of energy.
• Together with the nervous system, hormones are involved in providing
• emotional reactions
• human mental activity

Glandular endocrine system

The glandular endocrine system is represented by separate glands with concentrated endocrine cells. The endocrine glands include:

• Thyroid
• Parathyroid glands
• Thymus, or thymus gland
• Pancreas
• Adrenal glands
• Sex glands:
• Ovary
• Testicle

(for more details on the structure and functions of these glands, see below "THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN SUBSTANCE EXCHANGE, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY")

Diffuse endocrine system- the department of the endocrine system, represented by endocrine cells scattered in various organs, producing aglandular hormones (peptides, with the exception of calcitriol).

In a diffuse endocrine system, endocrine cells are not concentrated, but scattered. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland have secretory cells, while the hypothalamus is considered an important element of the "hypothalamic-pituitary system". The pineal gland also belongs to the diffuse endocrine system. Some endocrine functions are performed by the liver (secretion of somatomedin, insulin-like growth factors, etc.), kidneys (secretion of erythropoietin, medullins, etc.), stomach (secretion of gastrin), intestines (secretion of vasoactive intestinal peptide, etc.), spleen (secretion of splenins) and others. Endocrine cells are found throughout the human body.

Basic concepts and key terms: regulatory systems, nervous, endocrine, immune systems.

Remember! What is the regulation of the functions of the human body?

Regulation (from Lat. Regulation) - to put in order, to arrange.

Think!

The human body is a complex system. It contains billions of cells, millions of structural units, thousands of organs, hundreds of functional systems, dozens of physiological systems. And thanks to what they all work harmoniously, as a whole?

What are the features of the regulatory systems of the human body?

REGULATORY SYSTEMS

the availability of organs that have a leading effect on the activity of physiological systems, organs and cells. These systems have structural and functional features associated with their purpose.

There are central and peripheral divisions in the regulatory systems. Leadership teams are formed in central bodies, and peripheral organs ensure their distribution and transfer to working bodies for implementation (principle of centralization).

To control the execution of commands, the central bodies of regulatory systems receive feedback from the working bodies. This feature of the activity of biological systems is called the feedback principle.

Information from regulatory systems throughout the body is transmitted in the form of signals. Therefore, the cells of such systems have the ability to produce electrical impulses and chemicals, encode and distribute information.

Regulatory systems regulate functions in accordance with changes in the external or internal environment. Therefore, the leading commands that are sent to the organs are either stimulating or slowing down (the principle of double action).

Such features in the human body are characteristic of three systems - nervous, endocrine and immune. And they are the regulatory systems of our body.

So, the main features of regulatory systems are:

1) the presence of central and peripheral departments; 2) the ability to produce guidance signals; 3) activity based on the feedback principle; 4) double way of regulation.

How is the regulatory activity of the nervous system organized?

The nervous system is a set of human organs that perceive, analyze and provide the activity of the physiological systems of organs in a very fast mode. By structure, the nervous system is divided into two parts - central and peripheral. The central one includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral one includes the nerves. The activity of the nervous system is reflex, carried out with the help of nerve impulses that arise in nerve cells. A reflex is the body's response to irritation, which occurs with the participation of the nervous system. Any activity of physiological systems is of a reflex nature. So, with the help of reflexes, the secretion of saliva for tasty food, the withdrawal of the hand from the thorns of the rose, etc. are regulated.

Reflex signals are transmitted at high speed by nerve pathways that form reflex arcs. This is the path along which impulses are transmitted from receptors to the central parts of the nervous system and from them to the working organs. The reflex arc consists of 5 parts: 1 - the receptor link (perceives irritation and turns it into impulses); 2 - sensitive (centripetal) link (transmits excitation to the central nervous system); 3 - the central link (it analyzes information with the participation of plug-in neurons); 4 - motor (centrifugal) link (transmits guiding impulses to the working body); 5 - a working link (with the participation of a muscle or gland, a certain action occurs) (Fig. 10).

The transfer of excitation from one neuron to another is carried out using synapses. This is a plot of con

tact of one neuron with another or with a working organ. Excitation in synapses is transmitted by special mediator substances. They are synthesized by the presynaptic membrane and accumulate in synaptic vesicles. When nerve impulses reach the synapse, the vesicles burst and mediator molecules enter the synaptic cleft. The dendrite membrane, called the postsynaptic membrane, receives information and converts it into impulses. Excitation is transmitted further by the next neuron.

So, due to the electrical nature of nerve impulses and the presence of special pathways, the nervous system carries out reflex regulation very quickly and provides a specific effect on the organs.

Why are the endocrine and immune systems regulatory?

The endocrine system is a set of glands that provide humoral regulation of the functions of physiological systems. The highest department of endocrine regulation is the hypothalamus, which, together with the pituitary gland, controls the peripheral glands. The cells of the endocrine glands produce hormones and send them into the internal environment. Blood, and subsequently tissue fluid, delivers these chemical signals to cells. Hormones can slow down or enhance cell function. For example, the adrenal hormone adrenaline revitalizes the heart, acetylcholine inhibits it. The effect of hormones on organs is a slower way of controlling functions than through the nervous system, but this effect can be general and long-term.

The immune system is a collection of organs that form special chemical compounds and cells to provide a protective effect on cells, tissues and organs. The central organs of the immune system include the red bone marrow and thymus, and the peripheral organs are the tonsils, appendix, and lymph nodes. The central place among the cells of the immune system is occupied by various leukocytes, and among chemical compounds - antibodies produced in response to foreign protein compounds... The cells and substances of the immune system are spread by the fluids of the internal environment. And their effect, like hormones, is slow, long-lasting and general.

So, the endocrine and immune systems are regulatory systems and carry out humoral and immune regulation in the human body.

ACTIVITY

Learning to cognize

Independent work with the table

Compare the nervous, endocrine and immune regulatory systems, determine the similarities and differences between them.

Biology + Neurophysiology

Platon G. Kostyuk (1924-2010) is an outstanding Ukrainian neurophysiologist. The scientist was the first to design and use microelectrode technology to study the organization of nerve centers, penetrated into a nerve cell, registering its signals. Investigated how the transformation of information from electrical to molecular forms occurs in the nervous system. Platon Kostyuk proved that calcium ions play an important role in these processes. And what is the role of calcium ions in the nervous regulation of the functions of the human body?

Biology + Psychology

Each person reacts to colors differently, depending on their temperament and health conditions. Psychologists, based on their attitude to color, determine the character of a person, his inclinations, intellect, and the type of psyche. So, the red color strengthens memory, gives vigor and energy, excites the nervous system, and the purple color enhances creativity, has a calming effect on the nervous system, increases muscle tone. Applying knowledge of regulatory systems, try to explain the mechanism of the effect of color on the human body.

RESULT

This is tutorial material

Physiological processes in the human body are coordinated due to the existence of certain mechanisms of their regulation.

The regulation of various processes in the body is carried out using nervousandhumoralmechanisms.

Humoral regulation carried out using humoral factors ( hormones), which are carried by blood and lymph throughout the body.

Nervousregulation is carried out using nervous system.

The nervous and humoral modes of regulation of functions are closely related to each other. The activity of the nervous system is constantly influenced by the chemicals brought with the blood stream, and the formation of most of the chemicals and their release into the blood is under the constant control of the nervous system.

The regulation of physiological functions in the body cannot be carried out with the help of only nervous or only humoral regulation - this is a single complex neurohumoral regulation functions.

Recently, it has been suggested that there are not two systems of regulation (nervous and humoral), but three (nervous, humoral and immune).

Nervous regulation

Nervous regulation - This is the coordinating influence of the nervous system on cells, tissues and organs, one of the main mechanisms of self-regulation of the functions of the whole organism. Nervous regulation is carried out from toby the power of nerve impulses. Nervous regulation is fast and local, which is especially important in the regulation of movements, and affects all (!) Body systems.

The reflex principle is the cornerstone of nervous regulation. Reflex is a universal form of interaction of the body with the environment, it is the body's response to irritation, which is carried out through the central nervous system and is controlled by it.

The structural and functional basis of the reflex is the reflex arc - a series-connected chain of nerve cells that provides a response to stimulation. All reflexes are carried out I due to the activity of the central nervous system - the brain and spinal cord.

Humoral regulation

Humoral regulation is the coordination of physiological and biochemical processes carried out through the body's liquid media (blood, lymph, tissue fluid) with the help of biologically active substances (hormones) secreted by cells, organs and tissues during their life.

In the course of evolution, humoral regulation arose earlier than nervous regulation. It became more complicated in the process of evolution, as a result of which the endocrine system (endocrine glands) arose.

Humoral regulation is subordinate to nervous regulation and together with it constitutes a single system of neurohumoral regulation of body functions, which plays an important role in maintaining the relative consistency of the composition and properties of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis) and its adaptation to changing conditions of existence.

Immune regulation

Immunity is a physiological function that ensures the resistance of the organism to the action of foreign antigens. Human immunity makes it immune to many bacteria, viruses, fungi, worms, protozoa, various animal poisons, and protects the body from cancer cells. The task of the immune system is to recognize and destroy all foreign structures.

The immune system is the regulator of homeostasis. This function is carried out by generating autoantibodies, which, for example, can bind excess hormones.

The immunological reaction, on the one hand, is an integral part of the humoral one, since most physiological and biochemical processes are carried out with the direct participation of humoral mediators. However, the immunological reaction is often targeted in nature and thus resembles nervous regulation.

The intensity of the immune response, in turn, is regulated neurophilic way. The immune system is corrected by the brain and through the endocrine system. Such nervous and humoral regulation is carried out with the help of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides and hormones. Promediators and neuropeptides reach the organs of the immune system along the axons of the nerves, and hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands in an unrelated manner into the blood and thus are delivered to the organs of the immune system.

Phagocyte (immune cell), destroys bacterial cells

Bibliography:

1. L.V. Vysotskaya, G.M. Dymshits, E.M. Nizovtsev. General biology. - M .: Scientific world, 2001.

2. M.Yu.Matyash, N.M. Matyash. Biology. Textbook for the 9th grade of general educational institutions. - K .: Perun, 2009

Mechanisms of body regulation humoral regulation (endocrine system) is carried out with the help of biologically active substances, secreted by the cells of the endocrine system into liquid media (blood, lymph), nervous regulation (nervous system) is carried out using electrical impulses going through the nerve cells Homeostasis - the constancy of the internal environment

Classification of the glands of the endocrine system of internal secretion § they secrete hormones, § they do not have excretory ducts, § hormones enter the blood and lymph of the external secretion of mixed secretion § they secrete secretions, § they have excretory ducts, § secrets enter the surface of the body or into the hollow organs. vessel

General properties of hormones § specificity, § high biological activity, § distant action, § generalized action, § prolonged action

thyrotropin TSH The pituitary gland stimulates the thyroid gland adrenocorticotropin ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands somatotropin STH stimulates the growth of melanotropin MTG stimulates skin cells that affect its color vasopressin (antidiuretic) ADH gonadotropin GTG retains water in the kidneys, regulates the genital blood pressure

The pineal gland (pineal gland) is located in the center of the oval-shaped brain ≈1 cm ü After 7 years, the gland partially atrophies

The pineal gland melatonin regulates the cyclic processes in the body (the change of day and night: in the daytime the synthesis of melatonin is suppressed, and in the dark it is stimulated) inhibits growth and puberty

Thyroid gland Located in front and on the sides below the larynx larynx thyroid gland trachea ü The activity of the gland increases in the middle and older school age due to puberty

thyroxine (T 4) § increase the intensity of metabolism and heat generation, § stimulate skeletal growth, Thyroid gland triiodothyronine (T 3) calcitonin § increase the excitability of the central nervous system § enhances calcium deposition in bone tissue

Parathyroid glands Located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are rounded ≈0.5 cm Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands

Thymus (thymus gland) Thymus Located behind the handle of the sternum Ribs Lungs Sternum Heart ü Increases rapidly in the first 2 years of life, reaching the greatest size at the age of 11-15 years. From the age of 25, a gradual decrease in the glandular tissue begins with its replacement with adipose tissue.

The thymus consists of two lobes.It is the central organ of immunity: the multiplication of immune cells - lymphocytes occurs in it

Thymus thymosin affects: § carbohydrate metabolism, § calcium and phosphorus metabolism, § regulates skeletal growth

Adrenal glands Are located in the retroperitoneal space above the upper pole of the corresponding kidney. L ≈ 2 -7 cm, W ≈ 2 -4 cm, T ≈ 0.5 -1 cm The right adrenal gland is triangular, the left is crescent

Mineralocorticoids: § aldosterone Cortical layer Glucocorticoids: § hydrocortisone § cortisol affect water-salt metabolism regulate carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism Sex steroids: § androgens § estrogens The medullary layer is similar to hormones of the gonads § adrenaline, § noradrenaline

Pancreas External secretion Pancreatic juice Enters the duct of the gland in 12-p. the intestine is involved in digestion Internal secretion Glucagon Insulin Enters the blood increases blood glucose decreases blood glucose

Ovaries External secretion Internal secretion Hormones Egg production Estrogens Progesterone Enter the bloodstream influence on the development of secondary sexual characteristics pregnancy hormone

Testicles External secretion Sperm production Internal secretion Hormones Androgens (testosterone) Enter the bloodstream to influence the development of secondary sexual characteristics

Functions of the nervous system 1. Regulatory (ensures the coordinated work of all organs and systems). 2. Carries out the adaptation of the organism (interaction with the environment). 3. Forms the basis of mental activity (speech, thinking, social behavior).

The structure of the nervous tissue Nerve tissue Neuron Neuroglia nerve cell supporting cells structural and functional unit NS support, protection and nutrition of neurons

Classification of the nervous system (topographic) CNS Brain Peripheral Nerve fibers Spinal cord Nerve nodes Nerve endings

Classification of the nervous system (functional) Somatic regulates the work of skeletal muscles, tongue, larynx, pharynx and skin sensitivity Regulated by the cerebral cortex Vegetative Sympathetic Parasympathetic regulate metabolism, the work of internal organs, blood vessels, glands Not regulated by the cerebral cortex maintain homeostasis

Spinal cord spinal canal vertebra spinal cord spinal roots It is located in the spinal canal in the form of a cord, in its center is the spinal canal. Length = 43 -45 cm

The spinal cord consists of gray and white matter gray matter is a cluster of neuronal bodies in the center of the spinal cord (in the form of a butterfly) white matter - formed by nerve fibers, surrounds the gray

The functions of the spinal cord are reflex - carried out due to the presence of reflex centers of the musculature of the trunk and limbs. With their participation, tendon reflexes, flexion reflexes, reflexes of urination, defecation, erection, ejaculation, etc. are carried out. üThe activity of the spinal cord is subordinated to the brain

The brain is located in the skull Brain Average weight: adult (by 25 g) - 1360 g, newborn - 400 g

The structure of the brain gray matter white matter accumulation of bodies of neurons Nuclei - reflex centers reflex function processes of neurons Cortex - the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres (4 mm) are ascending and descending nerve fibers (pathways) connecting the sections of the GM and SM conducting function

Sections of the brain posterior middle § medulla oblongata § quadruplenos § cerebellum § bridge brainstem intermediate § thalamus § hypothalamus terminal § large hemispheres

The brain of modern mammals - the cortex - consciousness, intelligence, logic 2 million years The brain of ancient mammals - the subcortex of feelings, emotions (thalamus, hypothalamus) The brain of reptiles - the brain stem 100 million years old instincts, survival

Age features of the development of the brain CNS structures mature non-simultaneously and asynchronously Brain divisions Period of completion of development Subcortical structures mature in utero and complete their development during the first year of life Cortical structures 12-15 years Right hemisphere 5 years Left hemisphere 8-12 years